Human rights
Every child needs food, sleep, school and a safe home; these are not charity from anyone. Rights of this kind needed to live as a human being are human rights.
Human rights are the rights necessary to live as a human being and as a constituent of society. They emerged from the concept of natural rights; natural rights are those we are endowed with because we are born as human beings.
Key idea 1 : How did the idea of human rights grow? — The American and French Revolutions proclaimed liberty, equality, fraternity and justice as human rights. The idea that a democratic government is essential to realise these rights was strengthened and several European nations adopted democratic constitutions. This brought limits on the authority of the State and protecting citizens’ rights came to be seen as its main responsibility.
Key idea 2 : Human rights in international relations — After the UN was established the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was prepared and adopted by the General Assembly by majority on 10 December 1948. In 1966 the Assembly adopted the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; both are part of International Law and bind member nations. Rights to life, food, clothing, shelter, education and health are important human rights and the State must see that everybody gets them. Now, because of dangers to life, diseases, threat to the environment and disasters, the concept has broadened and protection of the environment and sustainable development are also included.
Key idea 3 : India and human rights — In the Indian Constitution human rights have been given the place of Fundamental Rights. Alongside Fundamental Rights the Constitution gives the government the responsibility of protecting weaker sections like women and minorities. In 1993 the Human Rights Protection Act was passed and under it the National Human Rights Commission and State Human Rights Commissions were established. The Commission takes cognizance of complaints of violation of human rights and takes appropriate action.
- Easy : The right of all to education and health. — A human right.
- Medium : A complaint of violation to the Human Rights Commission. — India’s mechanism.
- Exam-type : Protection of the environment and sustainable development. — Broadened human rights.
In the figure: Milestones in the development of human rights.
What happened before the 1948 Declaration? After the atrocities of the Second World War the need was felt to define what human rights are. A drafting committee of the UN Commission on Human Rights was formed, chaired by America’s Eleanor Roosevelt. The draft was submitted in May 1948.
What happened after the 1948 Declaration? On 10 December 1948 in Paris the Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration; of the 58 members then, 48 voted in favour, none against and eight abstained. Since then 10 December is observed as Human Rights Day.
As per the textbook the Declaration of Human Rights has 30 articles and the Declaration of the Rights of the Child was proclaimed on 20 November 1959. (check with the book)
10-12-48 = Human Rights Day; 1993 = India’s Act.
Human rights are not only civil rights; economic-social rights like food, education and health are included.
Memory clue: Human-Child-Covenants-Act. Memory clue: “48 declaration, 59 child, 66 two, 93 Act”.
Spot the difference
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1948 | Universal Declaration |
| 1966 | Civil-political and economic-social-cultural covenants |
| 1993 | Human Rights Protection Act, India |
Practice questions
- 1What are human rights?
- 2What are natural rights?
- 3When was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted?
- 4Which are the two covenants of 1966?
- 5What happened before and after the 1948 Declaration?
- 6What place do human rights have in India?
- 7How has the concept of human rights broadened?
- 8Why should the State see that all get food and education?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Rights necessary to live as a human being.
- 2Rights we get because we are born as human beings.
- 3On 10 December 1948.
- 4The covenant on civil and political rights and the covenant on economic, social and cultural rights.
- 5Before: the drafting committee and the 1948 draft; after: the declaration on 10 December 1948 by 48-0-8 votes and Human Rights Day.
- 6The place of Fundamental Rights and the 1993 Act.
- 7Because of diseases, environment threats and disasters, protecting the environment and sustainable development came in.
- 8Because these rights are necessary for a person to live with dignity.
Secure environment
If household garbage is thrown in the courtyard its smell reaches all neighbours. Pollution too does not stay with one country; it troubles everyone.
A secure environment is one free from pollution and environmental degradation; it is now accepted as an important human right. Sustainable development means development without harming the environment.
Key idea 1 : Environmental degradation and its effects — Industrialisation on a large scale and increasing energy needs have endangered the environment. Chemical fertilisers and pesticides in agriculture, sound pollution due to vehicles, radiation from nuclear reactors, oil leakages or leakages of chemical gases make the environment unsafe. Visible effects are extinction of species of plants and animals, decrease in soil fertility, water shortage, fluctuation in rainfall, global warming, drying up of rivers and lakes, pollution of rivers and seas, newer diseases, acid rain and thinning of the ozone layer.
Key idea 2 : Why is it a global problem? — The threat caused by pollution or leakage of oil and gas does not remain restricted to one nation and its effects are long term. After the wave of globalisation that started in 1990 interdependence among nations increased so it became necessary for nations to act with each other’s consent and cooperation to deal with these effects. Oceans, deep seabeds, the atmosphere, outer space and genetic resources are global resources belonging to all nations, so all are expected to look after them.
Key idea 3 : Stockholm to Paris Conference — A United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held at Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972. It stressed that all nations should cooperate to overcome pollution; developing nations feel developed nations are more responsible for environmental decline. Non-governmental organisations working in the field of the environment were also present. After this the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was created and many international treaties were signed. At the 1992 Rio conference the idea of sustainable development was stressed and treaties on biodiversity, climate change due to greenhouse gases and protection of forests were signed. The 1997 Kyoto conference laid down protocols for developed countries to prevent climate change, applicable for 15 years. In 2015 a climate change conference was held at Paris where an appeal was made that all nations make concerted efforts to stop climate change and global warming and that developed countries help developing countries acquire technology.
- Easy : Sea polluted by an oil leak. — A threat that ignores borders.
- Medium : Thinning of the ozone layer. — A problem of global nature.
- Exam-type : Earth Day on 22 April. — An international day of environmental awareness.
In the figure: Sequence of conferences from Stockholm to Paris.
What happened before the Stockholm conference? On 22 April 1970 the first Earth Day was celebrated in America. At the initiative of Senator Gaylord Nelson about 20 million people came together on streets, in colleges and schools for the environment. The date was chosen between spring break and final exams so that college students could take part.
What happened after the Stockholm conference? The Stockholm conference was held from 5 to 16 June 1972. On 15 December 1972 the General Assembly passed the resolution creating UNEP and designated 5 June as World Environment Day.
What happened before the Paris Agreement? On 11 December 1997 the Kyoto Protocol was adopted. It mainly set binding greenhouse-gas reduction targets for developed countries; because of a complex ratification process it came into force on 16 February 2005.
What happened after the Paris Agreement? On 12 December 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted by consensus. All countries are expected to submit plans to reduce emissions, so the divide between developed and developing countries is less rigid than before. It came into force on 4 November 2016.
The textbook says the Paris conference was held in November 2015; other sources say it ran from 30 November to 12 December 2015 and the agreement was adopted on 12 December. Write as per the book in exams. (check with the book)
72 Stockholm, 92 Rio, 97 Kyoto, 2015 Paris.
Environmental problems are not only local; many are global or have long-term effects.
Memory clue: Stock-Rio-Kyo-Paris. Memory clue: “seventy-two, ninety-two, ninety-seven, fifteen”.
Spot the difference
| Conference | Year | Main point |
|---|---|---|
| Stockholm | 1972 | Cooperation and UNEP |
| Rio | 1992 | Sustainable development, biodiversity |
| Kyoto | 1997 | Protocols for developed countries |
| Paris | 2015 | Efforts of all, technology help |
Practice questions
- 1Why is a secure environment considered a human right?
- 2State any four visible effects of environmental degradation.
- 3Why is the environmental question global?
- 4Write the features of the Stockholm conference.
- 5What happened before and after the Stockholm conference?
- 6State the difference between Kyoto and Paris.
- 7Which idea was stressed at the Rio conference?
- 8Why do developing countries consider developed countries more responsible?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Because an unsafe environment endangers human life and health.
- 2Extinction of species, water shortage, global warming, thinning of the ozone layer.
- 3Because effects do not stay in one nation and are long term.
- 4Cooperation of all, presence of NGOs, responsibility for common wealth and UNEP.
- 5Before: Earth Day 1970; after: UNEP on 15 December 1972 and 5 June as World Environment Day.
- 6Kyoto: protocols for developed countries only; Paris: all countries must make efforts.
- 7The idea of sustainable development.
- 8Because they industrialised and used energy earlier and more.
Terrorism
If a mischievous group frightens everyone in school, the class’s learning stops. Terrorism too frightens innocent people and breaks the peace of society.
Terrorism is spreading fear and terror in a society by using or threatening to use violence against common and innocent people for achieving political goals. It is organised and planned violence.
Key idea 1 : Terrorism is a global problem — Terrorism is a major problem of our times and several countries in the world face it. No nation is capable of countering terrorism entirely on its own, hence it is considered a global problem. In the last two decades terrorist conflict appears to have intensified in different countries and it has had a deep and long-term impact on international politics.
Key idea 2 : Traditional war versus terrorism — Traditional war is a conflict between two or more sovereign States; geographical boundaries acquire importance in it, that is, national security is connected with boundaries. In terrorism groups can cause violence in any part of the world from anywhere in the world. The aim of a terrorist attack is not to endanger geographical boundaries but to challenge a regime in a country or refuse to acknowledge the existence of the State. So due to increasing terrorism the internal security of a country is threatened in addition to its external security.
Key idea 3 : Remedies — To curb terrorism it is imperative that the security mechanisms of different nations work together in a concerted manner. As per the textbook human rights can be more effectively implemented if the environment is safeguarded and terrorism is completely wiped out. For this all nations have to come together and take concrete action.
- Easy : Spreading fear by targeting innocent citizens. — Terrorism.
- Medium : A war on the border between two countries. — Traditional war, not terrorism.
- Exam-type : Joint work by security mechanisms of many countries. — A remedy against terrorism.
In the figure: Terrorism and its remedy.
As per the textbook terrorism is spreading fear in society by using or threatening violence against common and innocent people for political goals. (check with the book)
War = boundaries; terrorism = from anywhere to anywhere.
Terrorism and traditional war are not the same; terrorism is by groups and does not depend on borders.
Memory clue: Fear-Innocent-Political. Memory clue: “spread fear, innocent target, political aim”.
Spot the difference
| Point | Traditional war | Terrorism |
|---|---|---|
| Between | Two or more sovereign States | Groups and a State/society |
| Role of borders | Important | Little |
| Threat to | External security | External and internal security |
Practice questions
- 1What is terrorism?
- 2Why is terrorism a global problem?
- 3State two differences between traditional war and terrorism.
- 4What is the effect of terrorism on internal security?
- 5What remedy is necessary to curb terrorism?
- 6Why is the aim of terrorism not to endanger geographical boundaries?
- 7Explain the connection between terrorism and human rights.
- 8What can we do as citizens to face terrorism?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Spreading fear in society through violence on innocent people for political aims.
- 2Because no nation can counter it alone.
- 3War is between States and linked to borders; terrorism is by groups and from anywhere.
- 4It challenges the regime and the country’s internal security is threatened.
- 5Concerted work by the security mechanisms of different nations.
- 6Because its aim is to challenge a regime or refuse to accept the State.
- 7If terrorism ends, human rights are implemented more effectively.
- 8Not spreading rumours, staying alert and helping lawful authorities (student’s view).
Refugees
If a house collapses in heavy rain a neighbour gives the family temporary shelter. But when a person must leave the whole country, who will give shelter is a big question.
Refugees are people who have to leave their motherland against their wishes or are forced to go to other nations seeking refuge or security. Torture, war or disaster are the causes.
Key idea 1 : Why do people become refugees? — Persecution for belonging to a particular race or religion, war or disaster force people to leave their country and seek shelter in another. Before the Second World War the Jews were tortured in Germany and their citizenship and property was confiscated, so they became refugees. In 1971 people of East Pakistan turned refugees and came to India due to political and religious persecution. In the last few years, because of the war-like situation in Iraq and Syria, many people are leaving Syria as refugees.
Key idea 2 : Problems of refugees — The most important problem for refugees is where to go and whether that nation will give shelter. They must also take other family members along, causing physical and emotional stress. There are dangers like heat, rain, storms, shortage of food, sickness and an enemy in pursuit and many lose their lives in this process. Even after reaching a safe place they need work, a place to live and face day-to-day problems; if language and culture are different, adjusting is difficult.
Key idea 3 : Host nations’ problems and international provisions — As the number of refugees increases the strain on the economy of the host nation increases; shortage of essential goods, crime or inflation may arise, locals may lose jobs and a problem of law and order may crop up. So many nations are not ready to give shelter and resettle refugees. In 1951 some provisions were made at the international level; one of them is that refugees will not be forcefully sent back to their country against their wishes. An office of the United Nations High Commissioner has also been established to solve their problems.
- Easy : People left their country because of war. — Refugees.
- Medium : Not forcibly sending refugees back. — A 1951 provision.
- Exam-type : Finding work and a place to live for refugees. — A challenge in the host country.
In the figure: Chain from becoming a refugee to getting help.
What happened before the 1951 Convention? After the Second World War millions were homeless in Europe. On 14 December 1950 the UN General Assembly by resolution 429(V) decided to convene an international conference on the status of refugees.
What happened after the 1951 Convention? At the Geneva conference the Convention on the status of refugees was approved on 28 July 1951. Its core principle is that a refugee should not be returned to a country where there is danger; it came into force on 22 April 1954. At first it was limited to events before 1 January 1951.
As per the textbook some international provisions about refugees were made in 1951 and an office of the UN High Commissioner was established; write as per the book in exams. (check with the book)
51 = refugee convention; do not send back.
Refugees and migrants are not the same; refugees must leave because of persecution, war or disaster.
Memory clue: Torture-War-Disaster. Memory clue: “torture, war, disaster — hence refugees”.
Spot the difference
| Point | Refugees | Host nation |
|---|---|---|
| Main question | Where to go? | How many to accept? |
| Difficulty | Work, home, language | Strain on economy |
| Help | 1951 provisions | High Commissioner’s office |
Practice questions
- 1Who are refugees?
- 2Why do people become refugees? Give examples.
- 3What problems do refugees face?
- 4What problems do host nations face?
- 5What happened before and after the 1951 Convention?
- 6What is the principle of not sending refugees back?
- 7Why do many nations hesitate to give shelter to refugees?
- 8How would safeguarding human rights reduce the refugee problem?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1People who leave their country against their wishes and seek refuge in another.
- 2Due to persecution, war or disaster; e.g. people of East Pakistan in 1971, Syria.
- 3Where to go, looking after family, dangers on the way, work-home, language-culture.
- 4Strain on economy, shortages, crime, locals’ jobs and law and order.
- 5Before: the 14 December 1950 resolution; after: the 28 July 1951 Convention and entry into force on 22 April 1954.
- 6A refugee should not be forcibly returned to a country where there is danger.
- 7Because their economy and law and order come under strain.
- 8When rights are protected, persecution and violence reduce and people need not leave.