India, Pakistan and China
Whether we like our neighbours or not, we must keep up a relationship with them. It is so with countries too; good relations with neighbours are a big need for India.
Neighbours are the countries bordering India. Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Maldives are India’s neighbours.
Key idea 1 : India’s position and values — India’s position in Asia is geographically and politically important. India is the biggest country in the Indian subcontinent and is economically and technologically more advanced, so it has a great influence among South Asian countries. Equality and mutual respect are important in India’s foreign policy and relations with neighbours are built on them.
Key idea 2 : India and Pakistan — Three factors influence India-Pakistan relations: the different world views of the two countries, the Kashmir question and nuclear rivalry. India opposed the military alliances of the Cold War and tried to settle disputes through bilateral talks; the Shimla Agreement of 1972 was based on this principle. Pakistan kept relations with the Islamic world and China and entered into a military agreement with America. In 1999 there was a conflict in the Kargil region and in 1998 both countries conducted nuclear tests. The border dispute in the Sir Creek area is also an issue. As per the textbook efforts at dialogue are faltering because of the issue of terrorism.
Key idea 3 : India and China — The India-China conflict is connected with two issues: the border issue and the status of Tibet. The border dispute is related to the Aksai Chin area and the McMahon Line; China does not accept the McMahon Line as an international border and claims Arunachal Pradesh. In 1962 China attacked India. As China stepped up its military control in Tibet the Dalai Lama took asylum in India. Still India made efforts to improve relations: a joint working group was set up to solve the border dispute and economic ties are growing. Though the border dispute is not fully resolved it has taken a back seat and relations in other areas have become more important.
- Easy : The Shimla Agreement of 1972. — Based on the principle of bilateral talks.
- Medium : Aksai Chin and the McMahon Line. — Points of the border dispute with China.
- Exam-type : The Dalai Lama taking asylum in India. — One aspect of the Tibet issue.
In the figure: Three stages of India-China relations.
What happened before the 1962 war? On 29 April 1954 India and China signed an agreement in Beijing on trade and intercourse in Tibet. Its preamble formally set out for the first time the five principles of peaceful coexistence, Panchsheel. The agreement was for eight years.
What happened after the 1962 war? In June 1962 the agreement expired and was not renewed. On 20 October 1962 war began on the border and on 21 November 1962 China declared a unilateral ceasefire and pulled its forces back.
What happened before the 1988 visit? After the 1962 war relations between the two countries stayed cold for many years. Between 1981 and 1988 there were rounds of official talks on the border and relations.
What happened after the 1988 visit? In December 1988 Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi visited China; it was the first visit to China by an Indian Prime Minister since 1954. A joint working group on the boundary question and a group for economic and scientific cooperation were agreed upon.
As per the textbook India is the biggest country of the subcontinent and has tense relations with Pakistan and China. (check with the book)
Pakistan = Kashmir, nuclear rivalry; China = border, Tibet.
Panchsheel is not the India-China war; it is a set of principles of peaceful coexistence.
Memory clue: Pakistan: Kashmir-nuclear; China: border-Tibet. Memory clue: “Pakistan’s ‘Ka-A’, China’s ‘Si-Ti’”.
Spot the difference
| Point | Pakistan | China |
|---|---|---|
| Main dispute | Kashmir, Sir Creek | Aksai Chin, McMahon Line |
| Agreement | Shimla Agreement 1972 | Panchsheel 1954 |
| Other point | Nuclear tests 1998 | Tibet, Dalai Lama |
Practice questions
- 1Which are India’s neighbouring countries?
- 2State the three factors influencing India-Pakistan relations.
- 3What is the Shimla Agreement?
- 4Write the two issues of India-China conflict.
- 5What happened before and after the 1962 war?
- 6What was the importance of Rajiv Gandhi’s 1988 visit to China?
- 7Why did India accept the principle of bilateral talks with Pakistan?
- 8Why are relations improving with China despite the border dispute?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Maldives.
- 2Different world views, the Kashmir question and nuclear rivalry.
- 3The 1972 India-Pakistan agreement that gave a new format to bilateral interaction.
- 4The border issue and the status of Tibet.
- 5Before: the Panchsheel agreement of 29 April 1954; after: war on 20 October 1962 and a unilateral ceasefire on 21 November.
- 6First visit by an Indian PM since 1954; a joint working group was set up.
- 7Because India had opposed the military alliances of the Cold War.
- 8Because economic and trade ties grew and the border dispute took a back seat.
India and the other neighbours
Our relationship with each neighbour is different — with one we share water, with another a road. Countries’ ties with neighbours are also bound by different reasons.
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a regional organisation established by South Asian countries in 1985. Its aim is to develop the region by promoting economic cooperation.
Key idea 1 : Bangladesh and Sri Lanka — Today’s Bangladesh is the erstwhile East Pakistan. There were linguistic differences and political conflicts between West and East Pakistan and a movement to liberate Bangladesh arose from it. India helped in this struggle and Bangladesh was formed in 1971. Treaties were signed on river water sharing and the shared border and trade is now growing. India has friendly relations with Sri Lanka. After 1985 differences between the Tamils and the government caused instability and India sent a peacekeeping force then. Friendship with Sri Lanka is important for security in the Indian Ocean.
Key idea 2 : Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar — Nepal and Bhutan are landlocked countries surrounded by mountains. As per the 1950 Indo-Nepal Friendship Treaty Nepalese citizens can enter India, take up government jobs and carry on trade. In 1990 Nepal began its transition to democracy. Nepal depends on India for economic progress, basic facilities, food, trade and energy. India bears the responsibility of Bhutan’s defence and cooperated in large-scale hydel power production using Bhutan’s water. Myanmar is India’s door to South-East Asia; India will be able to import natural gas from there.
Key idea 3 : Afghanistan, Maldives and SAARC — The textbook says Afghanistan has political instability due to the dominance of the Taliban. India helped to bring peace, security and a democratic government there and helped rebuild communication facilities destroyed by war, roads, schools, health and irrigation projects. Maldives, the small nation south of India, depends on India for many reasons; trade ties exist since 1981 and there are agreements on infrastructure, health, space research and cooperation against terrorism. On the SAARC platform a treaty on a South Asian Free Trade Area was signed and the South Asian University was established.
- Easy : India helped Bangladesh’s liberation struggle. — 1971.
- Medium : Nepalese citizens can take jobs in India. — The 1950 friendship treaty.
- Exam-type : Establishment of the South Asian University. — One work of SAARC.
In the figure: India’s other neighbouring countries.
What happened before the 2015 enclave exchange? There were villages stuck inside each other’s territory between India and Bangladesh, called enclaves. On 16 May 1974 Indira Gandhi and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed a Land Boundary Agreement. Bangladesh ratified it quickly, but in India it remained pending for many years. In 2011 an additional protocol was signed.
What happened after the 2015 enclave exchange? At midnight on 31 July 2015, 162 enclaves, 111 Indian and 51 Bangladeshi, were exchanged. Residents got a chance to choose citizenship of their choice; people who had lived for decades almost without a state lit candles to celebrate.
What happened before the 2015 Nepal earthquake? On 31 July 1950 India and Nepal signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship. Under it citizens of both countries can move freely into each other’s country and work, and the treaty created the open border between the two countries.
What happened after the 2015 Nepal earthquake? On 25 April 2015 an earthquake of magnitude 7.8 struck Nepal. Within hours India sent teams of the National Disaster Response Force and the next day a relief operation called ‘Operation Maitri’ began.
As per the textbook SAARC was established in 1985; other sources say the charter was adopted on 8 December 1985. India’s help in the 2015 Nepal earthquake is also mentioned in the textbook. (check with the book)
Nepal = 1950 friendship treaty; Bhutan = hydel power; Sri Lanka = peacekeeping force.
Bhutan and Nepal are landlocked countries; they are not parts of India.
Memory clue: 50-71-85 = Nepal treaty, Bangladesh, SAARC. Memory clue: “fifty Nepal, seventy-one Bangladesh, eighty-five SAARC”.
Spot the difference
| Country | Main aspect of ties with India |
|---|---|
| Bangladesh | 1971 liberation, river water and border treaties |
| Nepal | 1950 friendship treaty, open border |
| Bhutan | Defence, hydel power |
| Myanmar | Door to South-East Asia |
Practice questions
- 1What is SAARC?
- 2What role did India play in the creation of Bangladesh?
- 3Write the features of the Indo-Nepal friendship treaty.
- 4Why is Myanmar important for India?
- 5What happened before and after the 2015 enclave exchange?
- 6How did India help Nepal after the 2015 earthquake?
- 7What are India’s relations with Bhutan like?
- 8Why is the SAARC platform useful for South Asia?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A regional cooperation organisation established by South Asian countries in 1985.
- 2It helped their liberation struggle and Bangladesh was formed in 1971.
- 3Nepalese citizens can enter India and take government jobs and trade.
- 4It is the door to South-East Asia and natural gas can be imported from there.
- 5Before: the 1974 agreement and the 2011 protocol; after: exchange of 162 enclaves on 31 July 2015.
- 6Within hours of the earthquake it sent disaster response teams and started Operation Maitri.
- 7India bears Bhutan’s defence responsibility and cooperates in hydel projects.
- 8Because common questions can be discussed and free trade treaties made there.
India with America, Russia and Europe
Even with distant relatives we have ties of trade, education and help as needed. Likewise India’s ties with distant big countries are important for development.
India-America relations are the trade, technology and defence cooperation between two democracies. India-Russia relations have been friendly since long, while with Europe there is trade and technology cooperation.
Key idea 1 : India and America — Both India and America are democracies. From the beginning America was India’s most important trading partner and many Indians went there for education or work; because of them cultural, social and economic ties grew. After the Cold War military relations increased on a large scale and trade grew after India accepted the free market economy. The 1998 nuclear tests brought tension in relations but after many rounds of talks America came to believe that India will use nuclear weapons responsibly. The framework of the 2005 civil nuclear arrangement and the 2008 agreement became an important landmark in relations.
Key idea 2 : India and Russia — India and the erstwhile Soviet Russia always shared friendly relations. In 1971 a treaty of friendship and cooperation was signed between them which gave impetus to cooperation in defence and technology. Soviet Russia gave economic and military help to India on a large scale. After the Soviet collapse relations did not improve much because of Russia’s political and economic problems; after 1996 they began to improve slowly. Now both have jointly built projects for military equipment and mineral oil production.
Key idea 3 : India and Europe — There are trade relations between European nations and India. Germany and France especially invest on a large scale in technology in India. India also gets weapons-production technology from Europe and is a major exporter in engineering and information technology. Several treaties have been signed on climate change, clean energy, defence production, disaster management, security of air space and terrorism; this cooperation is important for India’s development.
- Easy : The 1971 Indo-Soviet treaty. — Foundation of cooperation with Russia.
- Medium : Technology investment by Germany and France. — Ties with Europe.
- Exam-type : Non-resident Indians in America. — A factor raising cultural-economic ties.
In the figure: Stages of ties with America and Russia.
What happened before the 2005 joint statement? After the 1998 nuclear tests tension arose in India-America relations. Many rounds of talks followed between the two countries, through which America began to believe India will use nuclear weapons responsibly.
What happened after the 2005 joint statement? On 18 July 2005 Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and President George Bush announced civil nuclear cooperation in a joint statement. On 1 August 2008 the IAEA board approved, on 6 September 2008 the Nuclear Suppliers Group granted a waiver for India and on 10 October 2008 the agreement was signed. It made it possible for India to get civil nuclear technology from other countries as well.
As per the textbook the agreement was signed in 2005 and approved by the IAEA in 2008; other sources say a joint statement was made in 2005 and the agreement signed on 10 October 2008. Write as per the book in exams. (check with the book)
America = democracy, nuclear deal; Russia = 1971 treaty; Europe = technology.
Tension came after the tests, but talks improved relations; they were not spoiled for ever.
Memory clue: America-Russia-Europe. Memory clue: “71 Russia, 08 nuclear deal”.
Spot the difference
| Country | Key point | Year |
|---|---|---|
| America | Civil nuclear cooperation | 2005-2008 |
| Russia | Treaty of friendship and cooperation | 1971 |
| Europe | Technology investment and treaties | Present |
Practice questions
- 1Write the background of India-America relations.
- 2What is the India-America civil nuclear agreement?
- 3What is the 1971 Indo-Soviet treaty?
- 4How were India-Russia relations after the Soviet collapse?
- 5What happened before and after the 2005 joint statement?
- 6What cooperation does India have with European countries?
- 7How did non-resident Indians help ties grow?
- 8Relations with America improved even after the tests; what can be learnt from this?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Both democracies; America an early big trading partner; many Indians there for education-work.
- 2The agreement between the two countries to get nuclear technology and fuel for civil use.
- 3The 1971 treaty of friendship and cooperation that gave impetus to defence-technology cooperation.
- 4They did not improve much at first; they improved slowly after 1996.
- 5Before: tension after 1998 and talks; after: the 18 July 2005 statement and the August-October 2008 approvals and agreement.
- 6Trade, technology investment and treaties on climate-energy-disasters.
- 7Because of them cultural, social and economic ties grew.
- 8Talks and trust reduce tension (student’s view).
India with Africa, Indo-Pacific, South-East and West Asia
A good trader does not depend on one village; he connects customers and suppliers in many directions. India too connects with many regions.
The ‘Look East’ policy is India’s policy of increasing trade with South-East Asian nations. It was later renamed the ‘Act East’ policy.
Key idea 1 : Africa and the Indo-Pacific — India has consciously taken steps to build cooperation with Africa. Many African countries are developing rapidly and India is ready to help in the all-round development of African youth. Economic help and grants are given in areas like technology, agriculture and tourism. India’s energy needs can be fulfilled by energy-rich countries like Egypt, Nigeria, Angola and Sudan. In 2015 an India-Africa summit was held in which climate change, terrorism and piracy were discussed. The Indo-Pacific area includes Japan, Australia, New Zealand and the South-East Asian nations; they have close trade relations with India. Japan cooperates in infrastructure, information technology, atomic energy and railways.
Key idea 2 : South-East Asia: Look East and Act East — India has friendly relations with the South-East Asian nations Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Brunei. After 1991 India changed its economic policy and adopted a free market economy and trade with these countries grew. The policy of increasing trade with them is known as the ‘Look East’ policy; after 2014 it was made more active and is now called the ‘Act East’ policy.
Key idea 3 : West Asia and the aim of foreign policy — West Asian countries are mainly suppliers of mineral oil and natural gas and India has traditional relations with them. India imports oil from Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. From Israel we get modern technology for agriculture and defence equipment and many Indians living there contribute to our economy. The main objective of India’s foreign policy is to maintain friendly relations with all nations and help each other so as to bring about development of India as well as others.
- Easy : The 2015 India-Africa summit. — An example of cooperation with Africa.
- Medium : Growing trade with South-East Asia. — The Look East policy.
- Exam-type : Oil imports from Iraq and Saudi Arabia. — Ties with West Asia.
In the figure: Africa, Indo-Pacific, South-East and West Asia.
What happened before the Act East policy? After the 1991 economic crisis India carried out economic reforms and looked at the world afresh. Against the background of the Soviet breakup and the fast growth of South-East Asia, the ‘Look East’ policy began around 1992 under Prime Minister Narasimha Rao.
What happened after the Act East policy? In November 2014 at the India-ASEAN summit in Nay Pyi Taw in Myanmar, Prime Minister Narendra Modi presented a new form of the policy as ‘Act East’. It puts greater emphasis on connectivity, security and cooperation and not only trade.
As per the textbook representatives of all 54 African nations attended the 2015 India-Africa summit. (check with the book)
South-East = trade; West = oil; Africa = energy and help.
Act East is the new form of Look East; they are not two unrelated policies.
Memory clue: Look-Act. Memory clue: “first looked (92), then acted (2014)”.
Spot the difference
| Region | Key point |
|---|---|
| Africa | Energy, help, 2015 summit |
| Indo-Pacific | Japan, Australia, trade |
| South-East Asia | Look East and Act East |
| West Asia | Mineral oil and gas |
Practice questions
- 1What is the Look East policy?
- 2Why are ties with Africa important for India?
- 3Which countries come in the Indo-Pacific area?
- 4On what are India’s ties with West Asia based?
- 5What happened before and after the Act East policy?
- 6Why did trade with South-East Asia grow after 1991?
- 7What is the main objective of India’s foreign policy?
- 8Why do you think India needs to build ties with many regions?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1India’s policy of increasing trade with South-East Asian countries.
- 2Energy needs are met and Africa is developing rapidly.
- 3Japan, Australia, New Zealand and the South-East Asian nations.
- 4Supply of mineral oil and natural gas, and contribution of Indians there.
- 5Before: the 1992 Look East policy; after: the Act East policy in November 2014.
- 6Because India adopted the free market economy.
- 7Friendship with all nations and development through mutual help.
- 8Needs like trade, energy and security cannot be met from one place (student’s view).