Literature, theatre, music and dance
We learn from grandparents’ stories and later read the same stories in books. In ancient India too knowledge first went by word of mouth and was then written down.
Knowledge passed on orally through generations is called ‘Vangmaya’, and what has come down in written form is called ‘Sahitya’. Theatre, music and dance were other important arts of ancient India.
Key idea 1 : Vangmaya and Sahitya — Vangmaya includes the Vedas, Upanishads and the epics Ramayana-Mahabharata. Sahitya includes Puranas, Buddhist and Jain texts, poetry, drama, ethics, philosophy and other religious texts. Panini wrote the ‘Ashtadhyayi’ and Patanjali wrote the ‘Mahabhashya’ as a commentary on it. Kalhana’s ‘Rajatarangini’ tells the history of Kashmir and Banabhatta’s ‘Harshacharita’ is historical literature.
Key idea 2 : Panchatantra and Jataka tales — The ‘Panchatantra’ is a famous story collection of ancient India, believed to be compiled by the scholar Vishnu Sharma. It has animal characters like lion, tiger, swan, tortoise and rabbit and gives messages of friendship, courage, morality and practical wisdom. The ‘Jataka tales’ too teach right and wrong in simple language. The Panchatantra has been translated into more than fifty languages.
Key idea 3 : Theatre, music and dance — Theatre: Bharat Muni’s ‘Natyashastra’ describes all aspects of theatre in detail. Famous plays: Bhasa’s ‘Swapnavasavadatta’, Kalidasa’s ‘Shakuntala’, Shudraka’s ‘Mricchakatika’, Vishakhadatta’s ‘Mudrarakshasa’, Harsha’s ‘Ratnavali’ and ‘Nagananda’. Music: origin in the Samaveda; ‘Gandharvaveda’ is the source of music; Sharangadeva’s ‘Sangeetaratnakar’ is a famous text. Dance: seven classical forms — Kathak, Kathakali, Bharatanatyam, Manipuri, Odissi, Kuchipudi and Mohiniattam; plus many folk dances.
- Easy : Who wrote the ‘Ashtadhyayi’? — Panini.
- Medium : How many classical dance forms? — Seven.
- Exam-type : Who is the author of the Natyashastra? — Bharat Muni.
In the figure: Journey of Panchatantra translations: Pahlavi (about 550), Syriac (570), Arabic (750), English (1570).
The Panchatantra reached Persia. According to its introduction the physician Burzoe came to India at the order of a Persian king, obtained the book, and it was translated into Pahlavi in about 550 CE; versions of the story differ in details. Later came a Syriac and, in about 750, an Arabic translation, known as ‘Kalila wa Dimna’. From there the book went into many European languages; by the textbook’s chart it came into English in 1570. So Indian animal stories reached the world within a thousand years.
According to the story in the introduction of the Panchatantra, King Amarashakti’s three sons had no interest in studies. The king asked the scholar Vishnu Sharma to teach them practical wisdom. Instead of texts he taught through animal stories and within a few months the princes became wise. This is the frame story at the start of the Panchatantra; whether it actually happened is not proven.
Vangmaya = oral; Sahitya = written; Panchatantra = Vishnu Sharma; Natyashastra = Bharat Muni; seven classical dances.
‘Mudrarakshasa’ is by Vishakhadatta, not Kalidasa; Kalidasa’s plays are ‘Shakuntala’, ‘Malavikagnimitra’, ‘Vikramorvashiya’.
Oral = Vangmaya; written = Sahitya; seven dances: Ka-Ka-Bha-Ma-O-Ku-Mo. Memory clue: ‘Voice for Vangmaya, pen for Sahitya’.
Spot the difference
| Art | Text / example |
|---|---|
| Grammar | Panini — Ashtadhyayi; Patanjali — Mahabhashya |
| Historical literature | Kalhana — Rajatarangini; Banabhatta — Harshacharita |
| Theatre | Bharat Muni — Natyashastra; Kalidasa — Shakuntala |
| Music | Samaveda; Sharangadeva — Sangeetaratnakar |
| Dance | Kathak, Bharatanatyam, Odissi etc. seven forms |
Practice questions
- 1State the difference between ‘Vangmaya’ and ‘Sahitya’.
- 2Which are the works of Panini and Patanjali?
- 3What is the ‘Rajatarangini’ about?
- 4What characters and what message are in the Panchatantra?
- 5Who wrote the Natyashastra and what is in it?
- 6Write the names of the seven classical dance forms.
- 7Write how the Panchatantra reached the world.
- 8Tell one story of the Panchatantra or Jataka you know and write its message.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Orally passed knowledge — Vangmaya; written — Sahitya.
- 2Panini — Ashtadhyayi; Patanjali — Mahabhashya.
- 3About the history of Kashmir.
- 4Animal characters like lion, tiger, swan, tortoise, rabbit; friendship, courage, morality and practical wisdom.
- 5Bharat Muni; description of all aspects of theatre.
- 6Kathak, Kathakali, Bharatanatyam, Manipuri, Odissi, Kuchipudi and Mohiniattam.
- 7Through Pahlavi, Syriac and Arabic translations and then many European languages.
- 8E.g. the tortoise and the swans — friends help in danger; value friendship.
Art and architecture
Visiting a nearby temple, cave or fort we see sculptures and paintings. Craftsmen of ancient India made temples and paintings in the rock itself.
Stupas, Chaityagrihas, Viharas and caves of ancient India are excellent examples of architecture and murals. Ajanta, Ellora, Karle, Bhaje and Sanchi are important sites.
Key idea 1 : Ajanta and Ellora — The murals of the Ajanta Caves are world-famous. Their colours were made from plants, soils and minerals. Jewellery, attire and hairstyles are shown in fine detail and dance, instruments and nature are also depicted. Ellora has caves of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu traditions. The Kailasa Temple was carved from a single huge rock, beginning from the top and going down; the Marathi saying ‘first the pinnacle, then the foundation’ may have come from here.
Key idea 2 : Stupa, Chaityagriha and Vihara — Buddhist caves have three main parts: stupa, Chaityagriha (prayer hall) and Vihara (monks’ residence). The Chaityagriha at Karle is an excellent sculptural example and the Vihara at Bhaje in Maharashtra is the oldest of its kind; Viharas at Nashik, Bedse and Ajanta are also famous. The Khandagiri-Udayagiri caves in Odisha are Jain. The Sanchi Stupa was built in Ashoka’s time; later four grand Toranas were raised around it, carved with lions, elephants and scenes of Buddha’s life.
Key idea 3 : The Iron Pillar of Mehrauli — The Iron Pillar at Mehrauli near Delhi is a unique proof of advanced metallurgy in ancient India. The textbook says it was erected in the time of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). Even after about 1600 years it has not rusted. According to scientists phosphorus in the iron has formed a very thin protective layer called ‘misawite’ on the surface.
- Easy : Where is the Kailasa Temple? — Ellora.
- Medium : What is at Bhaje? — The oldest Vihara.
- Exam-type : The pillar is about 1600 years old; in 2026 CE when was it about erected? — 2026 − 1600 = about 426 CE (4th-5th century).
In the figure: Four important sites: Ajanta (paintings), Ellora (Kailasa), Sanchi (stupa), Karle-Bhaje (chaitya, vihara).
On 28 April 1819 the British officer Captain John Smith went into the valley of the Waghora river for a tiger hunt. A local boy pointed him towards a high cliff; clearing a way through the undergrowth he reached a cave. It was Cave 10 of Ajanta. He carved his name and date on the wall inside, which can still be seen. Local people knew the caves, but the world learnt of them after this.
Ajanta = paintings; Ellora = Kailasa; Sanchi = stupa-toranas; Karle = Chaityagriha; Bhaje = oldest Vihara.
The Kailasa Temple is carved from top to bottom, not built up from the foundation; it is carved, not built.
Chaityagriha = prayer; Vihara = residence; Stupa = monument. Memory clue: ‘Chai-Pra, Vi-Ni, Stu-Smar’ — three pairs.
Spot the difference
| Site | Feature |
|---|---|
| Ajanta | World-famous murals |
| Ellora | Buddhist-Jain-Hindu caves; Kailasa Temple |
| Sanchi | Ashoka’s stupa, four Toranas |
| Karle | Famous Chaityagriha |
| Bhaje | Oldest Vihara |
| Mehrauli | Rust-free iron pillar |
Practice questions
- 1From what were the colours of Ajanta murals made?
- 2How was the Kailasa Temple made?
- 3What are Stupa, Chaityagriha and Vihara?
- 4What is carved on the Toranas of the Sanchi Stupa?
- 5Which are two famous Buddhist caves in Maharashtra?
- 6Why is the Iron Pillar of Mehrauli famous?
- 7What happened about the Ajanta Caves in 1819?
- 8Write five lines about an ancient monument near you.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1From plants, soils and minerals.
- 2Carved from a single huge rock, from top to bottom.
- 3Stupa — monument; Chaityagriha — prayer hall; Vihara — monks’ residence.
- 4Lions, elephants and scenes of Buddha’s life.
- 5Karle and Bhaje (or Ajanta, Kanheri).
- 6Stands about 1600 years without rusting; proof of advanced metallurgy.
- 7While hunting a tiger John Smith reached them and the outside world came to know them.
- 8E.g. the monument’s name, who built it, when, for what and its special feature.
Trade, occupations, economy and medical science
In the market we buy vegetables, clothes and grain; everything is made by someone. In ancient India too life depended on farming, crafts and trade.
Agriculture was the main occupation in ancient India; textile and metal industries, trade and ports supported the economy. Jivaka, Sushruta and Charaka laid the base of medical science.
Key idea 1 : Agriculture, occupations and trade — The fertile land of the Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari and Krishna basins suited farming. Inscriptions at Junnar and Nashik mention professionals like Kularik (potters), Tilpishak (oil-pressers) and Kolik (weavers). Domestic and distant trade went by sea and land routes; along with grain, textiles, spices, metals, jewellery, ivory and precious gems were traded in large quantities. A coin system, fair taxation and markets kept the state’s economy stable.
Key idea 2 : Satavahan towns and ports — In the Satavahan period trade and industry grew in the south and towns like Pratishthan (Paithan), Tagar (Ter), Nashik and Karahatak (Karhad) arose. They were fortified. Roman coins have been found in excavations at these places, which gives an idea of advanced trade then. Sopara, Kalyan and Bharuch were the major ports of that time and spices, textiles and beads were traded with the Roman empire.
Key idea 3 : Ancient medical science — Indian medical science originated in the Atharvaveda. Jivaka, Sushruta and Charaka wrote on anatomy, surgery, pharmacology, disease treatment and diet rules. Jivaka studied at Takshashila; according to Buddhist texts he was Buddha’s personal physician. The ‘Sushruta Samhita’ describes abdominal surgery, reconstruction of the nose (rhinoplasty) and skin grafting and lists 1,120 diseases; Sushruta is called the ‘Father of Surgery’. The ‘Charaka Samhita’ has principles of immunity, medicines, diet, daily routine and lifestyle; it was used in Arabia, Tibet and China too.
- Easy : Whom did they call Kularik? — Potters.
- Medium : Name two ports of the Satavahan period. — Sopara and Kalyan.
- Exam-type : How many diseases did Sushruta list? — 1,120.
In the figure: Chain of the economy: farming → craftsmen → towns → ports.
Excavations at Ter (Dharashiv district) yielded Roman coins, storage jars, glass beads and ivory carvings. Among them a 12-centimetre ivory doll is specially noted in the textbook. A similar doll was found at the city of Pompeii in Italy; this city had been buried by a volcanic eruption in 79 CE. So by the 1st century CE goods of Indian craftsmen were reaching Roman markets across the sea.
In 1793 an operation was done at Pune on a bullock-cart driver named Cowasjee. Captured in a war, his nose had been cut off as punishment. A local practitioner made a new nose from the skin of his forehead, and two British doctors who saw it wrote about it in 1794 in London’s ‘Gentleman’s Magazine’. Reading it, the London surgeon Joseph Carpue did a similar operation in 1814 and called it the ‘Indian method’. This is the method known in the textbook as the ‘Indian Flap’.
Farming — river basins; occupations — Kularik, Tilpishak, Kolik; ports — Sopara, Kalyan, Bharuch; physicians — Jivaka, Sushruta, Charaka.
Sushruta is the ‘Father of Surgery’ and Charaka discusses medicines and diet; their texts are different.
Sushruta = surgery; Charaka = medicine, diet; Jivaka = Buddha’s physician. Memory clue: ‘Su-Sha, Cha-Au, Ji-Bu’ — three pairs.
Spot the difference
| Physician | Work |
|---|---|
| Jivaka | Studied at Takshashila; Buddha’s personal physician |
| Sushruta | Sushruta Samhita; surgery, rhinoplasty |
| Charaka | Charaka Samhita; immunity, medicines, diet |
Practice questions
- 1What was the main occupation in ancient India?
- 2Who were Kularik, Tilpishak and Kolik?
- 3Which towns arose in the Satavahan period?
- 4What was the importance of Sopara, Kalyan and Bharuch?
- 5Which surgeries are described in the Sushruta Samhita?
- 6For what is the Charaka Samhita famous?
- 7What do the ivory dolls of Ter and Pompeii tell about trade?
- 8If you were a merchant then, which trade would you choose and why?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Agriculture.
- 2Potters, oil-pressers and weavers.
- 3Paithan, Ter, Nashik and Karhad.
- 4They were major ports; trade with Rome went through them.
- 5Abdominal surgery, nose reconstruction and skin grafting.
- 6For its principles of immunity, medicines, diet and daily routine.
- 7Ter was a significant centre of Indo-Roman trade; Indian goods reached Rome.
- 8E.g. textile trade — because cloth was in demand at home and abroad.
Cultural integration in Maharashtra and education
In our school children who speak different languages and celebrate different festivals learn together. In Maharashtra’s history too many cultures came together.
In Maharashtra, ruled by dynasties like the Satavahans and Vakatakas, religion, art, language, education and tradition mixed uniquely; so it is called the ‘Melting Pot’ of ancient India.
Key idea 1 : The cultural blend of Maharashtra — The long coast of the Arabian Sea made trade and cultural exchange easy. In Satavahan times trade with Rome flourished. The caves of Ajanta, Ellora and Kanheri bear witness to Buddhist, Jain and Hindu traditions and their architecture, sculptures and inscriptions tell about the history of that time. The culture of Maharashtra shows diversity of language and literature too. In the Konkan at Ratnagiri and Rajapur there are ‘Katalshilpe’ carved on rock — the sun, animals, dancing figures, hunting scenes; they are an important heritage of Maharashtra.
Key idea 2 : Education and Gurukul — Primary education began at home and then the child went to Gurukul. Higher education was available at universities like Nalanda, Takshashila and Vikramshila. Science, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, languages, music, sculpture, martial arts, Ayurveda and architecture were taught. In Gurukul students were taught good conduct, cultural values, ethics and discipline. Women too received education; names of Lopamudra, Gargi and Maitreyi occur in ancient literature. In Maharashtra, Paithan, Ajanta, Ellora and Kanheri were centres of education.
Key idea 3 : Nalanda and Vikramshila — Nalanda University was founded in the 5th century CE in the Gupta period; UNESCO has declared its archaeological site a World Heritage Site. Buddhist philosophy, Vedas, mathematics, astronomy, literature, music and arts were taught here. It had residential facilities for over 10,000 students and an excellent library; the entrance examination was very hard. Panini, Charaka and Jivaka were students of Takshashila. Vikramshila University was founded in the 8th century CE near Bhagalpur in today’s Bihar; an entrance examination was necessary here too.
- Easy : Where are Katalshilpe in Maharashtra? — In the Konkan at Ratnagiri and Rajapur.
- Medium : In which century was Nalanda founded? — The 5th century CE.
- Exam-type : How many students had residence at Nalanda? — Over 10,000.
In the figure: Journey of education: home → Gurukul → Nalanda, Takshashila, Vikramshila.
Maharashtra = melting pot; Katalshilpe = Ratnagiri, Rajapur; Nalanda = 5th century; Vikramshila = 8th century.
Nalanda and Vikramshila are both in Bihar, but their founding centuries differ — 5th and 8th.
Home → Gurukul → University; Nalanda 5, Vikramshila 8. Memory clue: ‘Na-5, Vi-8’ — two universities, two centuries.
Spot the difference
| University | Information |
|---|---|
| Nalanda | 5th century, Gupta period; 10,000 students; World Heritage Site |
| Takshashila | Panini, Charaka, Jivaka studied here |
| Vikramshila | 8th century; near Bhagalpur; entrance examination |
Practice questions
- 1Why is Maharashtra called the ‘Melting Pot’?
- 2What are Katalshilpe and where are they?
- 3Where did education begin in ancient India?
- 4Which qualities were taught in Gurukul?
- 5Name three universities of ancient India.
- 6State the features of Nalanda University.
- 7What do you learn about education of women in ancient India?
- 8Compare ancient Gurukul education and today’s school in three points.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Because religion, art, language, education and traditions blended here.
- 2Carvings on rock; in the Konkan at Ratnagiri and Rajapur.
- 3At home.
- 4Good conduct, cultural values, ethics and discipline.
- 5Nalanda, Takshashila and Vikramshila.
- 6Founded in the 5th century; residence for 10,000 students; excellent library; hard entrance exam; World Heritage Site.
- 7Women too got education; names of Lopamudra, Gargi and Maitreyi are in literature.
- 8E.g. Gurukul — living near the teacher, stress on conduct; today’s school — coming from home, subjects and exams; discipline and values matter in both.