Historical Research Method and Historiography
If grandfather shows a letter found in an old trunk you first ask: from when? who wrote it? is it genuine? A historian also finds the past by asking such questions.
Writing a critical account of the past after examining sources of history is historiography, and the person who writes it is a historian.
Key idea 1 : No laboratory, then what? — In science one can experiment and reach laws true in every time and place. In history events cannot be recreated and laws true for all times cannot be framed. So a historian uses the method of asking questions, critically examining sources and writing on the basis of evidence.
Key idea 2 : How a document is verified — First an expert who knows the language and script reads it. Then its genuineness is checked from lettering style, writing style, type and age of paper and seals of authority. Finally the historian interprets it with references.
Key idea 3 : Helping disciplines — Methods of archaeology, archival science, manuscriptology, epigraphy, linguistics, numismatics and genealogy help research. Even in ancient times people carried memory forward through cave paintings, stories and ballads; today these count as sources of history.
- Easy : Checking the seal on a paper? — Verifying genuineness.
- Medium : Study of coins? — Numismatics.
- Exam-type : Study of inscriptions? — Epigraphy.
In the figure: Steps of research method.
In Sumerian civilisation (Mesopotamia) records of kings and battles were kept in inscriptions. The earliest inscription showing a file of soldiers is in the Louvre museum, Paris. (As per the textbook; check with the book)
Question → critique → evidence → writing.
History has no experiments like science, but that does not make it unscientific; its method rests on evidence.
Memory clue: Q-C-E-W: question, critique, evidence, writing. Memory clue: "Question, Critique, Evidence, Write".
Spot the difference
| Point | Science | History |
|---|---|---|
| Method | Experiment and observation | Critical study of sources |
| Can events be repeated? | Yes | No |
| Conclusion | Universal laws | Evidence-based account |
Practice questions
- 1What is historiography?
- 2Why can the laboratory method not be used in history?
- 3State the steps of historical research.
- 4How is the genuineness of a document checked?
- 5Name any four disciplines that help history.
- 6How did ancient societies preserve memory of the past?
- 7How would you study an old object at home like a historian?
- 8Write about the earliest inscription.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A critical account of the past written after examining sources.
- 2Because events cannot be recreated and universal laws cannot be framed.
- 3Questions, critique of sources, evidence, writing.
- 4By checking script, style, paper and seals.
- 5Archaeology, numismatics, epigraphy, linguistics.
- 6Through cave paintings, stories, songs and ballads.
- 7By asking its age, use, owner and context.
- 8Sumerian; picture of soldiers in file; in the Louvre.
Modern Historiography
While describing a match one says "God’s grace" and another tells runs, balls and tactics. Modern historiography is like the second: study of human deeds with evidence.
Modern historiography rests on evidence, human deeds and scientific questions. ‘History’ is a Greek word first used by Herodotus.
Key idea 1 : Four characteristics — (1) A method based on scientific principles that begins with questions. (2) Questions are anthropocentric, i.e. about deeds of people of a period; no link between divine and human deeds is shown. (3) Answers rest on reliable evidence. (4) A graph of mankind’s journey is presented through past human deeds.
Key idea 2 : Greek roots — Modern historiography with these features has roots in ancient Greek writing. The fifth-century BCE Greek historian Herodotus first used the word ‘history’ for his book ‘The Histories’.
Key idea 3 : Scientific outlook in Europe — By the eighteenth century Europe had progressed greatly in philosophy and science. So belief grew that social and historical truths can be studied scientifically. Earlier, universities were busy only with philosophical talk on divine matters.
- Easy : "What decisions did which king take" – such a question? — Anthropocentric.
- Medium : Writing "God caused this event"? — Not in modern historiography.
- Exam-type : Who first used the word ‘history’? — Herodotus.
In the figure: Four characteristics of modern historiography.
In 1737 the Gottingen University was founded in Germany; it is regarded as the first university with an independent history department. (As per the textbook; check with the book)
Sci-Man-Proof-Graph.
‘Anthropocentric’ does not mean denying God; it only means history studies deeds of people.
Memory clue: Four features: science, human, proof, graph. Memory clue: "Science, Human, Proof, Graph".
Spot the difference
| Feature | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Scientific method | Starts with questions | Whose is this paper? |
| Anthropocentric | Deeds of people | Decisions of a king |
| Evidence-based | Reliable sources | Inscriptions, documents |
Practice questions
- 1State four characteristics of modern historiography.
- 2From where did the word ‘history’ come?
- 3Who was Herodotus?
- 4What are ‘anthropocentric’ questions?
- 5What change happened in Europe in the eighteenth century?
- 6What new thing happened at Gottingen University in 1737?
- 7State the difference between modern and ancient history writing.
- 8Frame three anthropocentric questions for one historical event.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Scientific method, human-centred questions, reliable evidence, graph of journey.
- 2From the Greek language.
- 3A fifth-century BCE Greek historian; author of ‘The Histories’.
- 4Questions about the deeds of people.
- 5Belief grew in studying social history scientifically.
- 6An independent history department began.
- 7Modern = evidence and questions; ancient = tales, ballads, belief.
- 8The student writes who, why, when, result type questions.
Notable European Scholars
Like cricket coaches each scholar had his own method: one said "doubt first", another "read only original papers". These methods shaped history writing.
Descartes, Voltaire, Hegel, Ranke and Karl Marx shaped different approaches to historiography.
Key idea 1 : Descartes and Voltaire — René Descartes (1596–1650) stressed checking the reliability of historical documents by critique; his rule: accept nothing as true while grounds of doubt remain. Voltaire (1694–1778) gave importance to traditions, trade, economy and agriculture along with sequence of events; so he is called the founder of modern historiography.
Key idea 2 : Hegel and Ranke — Hegel (1770–1831) held that history should be presented logically and the sequence of events shows progress; his dialectic method has three steps: thesis, antithesis, synthesis. Ranke (1795–1886) gave the highest importance to information from original documents and criticised imaginative narration.
Key idea 3 : Karl Marx — Karl Marx (1818–1883) said history is not about ideas but about living people. The class that owns the means of production exploits the others economically and this causes class struggle; so human history is the history of class struggle. His ‘Das Kapital’ is the most referred book worldwide.
- Easy : "Accept nothing while doubt remains" — who? — Descartes.
- Medium : Thesis-antithesis-synthesis method? — Hegel’s dialectics.
- Exam-type : History is class struggle? — Karl Marx.
In the figure: Four scholars and their contribution.
De-Vo-He-Ra: doubt, society, logic, document.
Ranke did not reject all imagination; he opposed imaginative writing without evidence.
Memory clue: Doubt, society, logic, document, class. Memory clue: "Doubt Society Logic Document Class".
Spot the difference
| Scholar | Main idea | Book |
|---|---|---|
| Hegel | Dialectics, progress | Reason in History |
| Ranke | Original documents | The Theory and Practice of History |
| Marx | Class struggle | Das Kapital |
Practice questions
- 1State Descartes’ contribution to history writing.
- 2Why is Voltaire called the founder of modern historiography?
- 3What is dialectics?
- 4Explain Ranke’s perspective of history.
- 5Explain Karl Marx’s class theory.
- 6Which is Hegel’s book?
- 7Spot the wrong pair: Marx – ‘Discourse on the Method’.
- 8Prepare a concept chart of four scholars.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Verifying truth by critique and doubt.
- 2Because they gave place to social life in history.
- 3Analysis by thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
- 4Careful checking of original documents; avoiding imagination.
- 5The owning class exploits others and class struggle follows.
- 6‘Reason in History’.
- 7‘Discourse on the Method’ is Descartes’ book.
- 8The student writes name, period, idea and book.
Annales School, Foucault and Feminist Historiography
If writing a school’s history you look only at the principal’s decisions the picture is half; experiences of students, peons, teachers and parents are needed too. This is the new outlook of history writing.
The Annales School, Michel Foucault and feminist historiography widened history beyond politics and wars.
Key idea 1 : Annales School — The Annales School arose in France in the early twentieth century. It said history is not only kings, leaders, politics and wars but also climate, local people, agriculture, trade, technology, communication, social divisions and collective mentality.
Key idea 2 : Michel Foucault — The French historian Foucault (1926–1984) argued in ‘Archaeology of Knowledge’ that the usual practice of arranging events chronologically is not right. He felt explaining transitions is more important. He subjected neglected areas such as mental disorders, medical science and prison administration to historical study.
Key idea 3 : Feminist historiography — Feminist historiography means rebuilding history from women’s viewpoint. The writings of the French author Simone de Beauvoir laid the foundation of feminism. Women’s employment, role in trade unions, institutions working for them and family life were studied in depth. In writings after 1990 women were shown as an independent social class.
- Easy : History of farming and climate? — Annales approach.
- Medium : Historical study of prison administration? — Foucault.
- Exam-type : History of women’s employment? — Feminist historiography.
In the figure: Three new trends of history writing.
What happened before the founding of the Annales journal? After the First World War, Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre taught at the University of Strasbourg. They wanted history to study ordinary people and daily life, not only kings and wars.
What happened after the founding of the Annales journal? They launched the journal ‘Annales’ in 1929. Bloch was executed by the Nazis in 1944 for his part in the French Resistance. Fernand Braudel, who wrote much of ‘The Mediterranean’ while a prisoner of war, carried the school forward.
Annales-Foucault-Feminist: scope widened.
Annales School is not a history of periodicals; it is a French school of new history writing.
Memory clue: Society, knowledge, women: scope widened. Memory clue: "Climate-Foucault-Women = wider scope".
Spot the difference
| Trend | Country | Main point |
|---|---|---|
| Annales | France | Climate, farming, collective mentality |
| Foucault | France | Explaining transitions |
| Feminist | France-West | Study of women’s life |
Practice questions
- 1What did the Annales School add to history?
- 2Why did Foucault call his method ‘archaeology of knowledge’?
- 3What is feminist historiography?
- 4Who was Simone de Beauvoir?
- 5Which neglected subjects did Foucault study?
- 6Which aspects of women’s life were studied in feminist historiography?
- 7How did the scope of historiography keep growing?
- 8Write the history of your favourite subject (e.g. pen, printing, computer).
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Inclusion of climate, farming, trade, technology and society.
- 2Because it explains transitions, not ultimate truth.
- 3Rebuilding history from women’s viewpoint.
- 4A French author whose writings laid the foundation of feminism.
- 5Mental disorders, medical science, prison administration.
- 6Employment, trade unions, institutions, family life.
- 7From politics to society, culture and many subjects.
- 8The student writes origin, changes and present state.