Ancient and Medieval Indian Historiography
Grandparents tell stories of ancestors orally while some families keep notes in a diary. In ancient India too memories were first preserved orally and then through inscriptions and books.
The earliest known written historical records in India are inscriptions. In the medieval period Banabhatta, Kalhana and Barani gave new dimensions to writing.
Key idea 1 : Ancient period — In ancient times memories of ancestors’ deeds, mythic lore and social change were kept orally. Inscriptions on Harappan seals show Indians knew writing as early as the third millennium, but the Harappan script is not yet deciphered. Emperor Ashoka’s edicts (3rd century BCE) are the earliest known written records of historical nature.
Key idea 2 : Other sources — From the first century CE inscriptions began to occur on coins, metal images, sculptures and copper plates. They tell dates of kings, genealogies, extent of kingdoms, administration, famines and climate. Epics Ramayana-Mahabharata, Puranas, Jain-Buddhist texts and travel accounts of foreigners are also important. ‘Harshacharit’ written by Banabhatta in the 7th century is a king’s biography.
Key idea 3 : Medieval period — Kalhana’s ‘Rajtarangini’ of the 12th century is close to modern historiography; he himself says he checked inscriptions, coins, old monuments and local traditions. Ziauddin Barani in ‘Tarikh-i-Phiruz Shahi’ said a historian should also write the ruler’s faults. Babur’s autobiography ‘Tuzuk-i-Babari’ and Abul Fazl’s ‘Akbarnama’ show a critical method of collecting evidence.
- Easy : Earliest known written historical records? — Ashoka’s edicts.
- Medium : Who wrote Harsha’s biography? — Banabhatta.
- Exam-type : Who wrote the history of Kashmir? — Kalhana (Rajtarangini).
In the figure: Timeline of ancient-medieval writers.
The Sohgaura copper plate (Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh) is believed to be of the Mauryan period; it has a Brahmi inscription and is supposed to record a royal order on distributing grain in famine. (As per the textbook; check with the book)
Ashoka → Bana → Kalhana → Barani.
Kalhana is not exactly a modern historian; his method was only ‘close’ to modern historiography.
Memory clue: Inscription → biography → Rajtarangini → Tarikh. Memory clue: "Inscribe, Bio, Wave(Tarangini), Tarikh".
Spot the difference
| Author | Work | Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Banabhatta | Harshacharit | King’s biography |
| Kalhana | Rajtarangini | Critical use of sources |
| Barani | Tarikh-i-Phiruz Shahi | Write ruler’s faults too |
Practice questions
- 1How were memories of history kept in ancient India?
- 2What is known about the Harappan script?
- 3Why are Ashoka’s edicts important?
- 4What information do inscriptions give?
- 5How is Kalhana’s ‘Rajtarangini’ close to modern historiography?
- 6What duty of a historian did Barani state?
- 7For what is Babur’s ‘Tuzuk-i-Babari’ useful?
- 8Why is ‘Akbarnama’ important for critical historiography?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Oral tales, later inscriptions and books.
- 2It has not yet been successfully deciphered.
- 3They are the earliest known written historical records.
- 4Dates of kings, genealogies, territory, famines, climate.
- 5He checked inscriptions, coins, monuments and traditions.
- 6Also record the ruler’s faults.
- 7For battles, regions, economy, customs and flora observations.
- 8Because authentic documents were collected and scrutinised.
Bakhars and Modern-Period Writing
One may describe a village fair with pride, another neutrally. Likewise bakhars praised heroes and British writers wrote India’s history through the lens of their policies.
A bakhar is a type of medieval Marathi historical writing containing praise of heroes, events, battles and lives of great men. In the modern period archaeological research began under British rule.
Key idea 1 : Marathi bakhars — Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad wrote ‘Sabhasad Bakhar’ in the time of Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj; it is important for information on the rule of Shivaji Maharaj. ‘Bhausahebanchi Bakhar’ and ‘Panipatachi Bakhar’ are about the Battle of Panipat, and ‘Holkaranchi Kaiphiyat’ gives information on the Holkars. Bakhars can be classed as biographies of kings, dynastic history, descriptions of events, history of a sect, autobiographies etc.
Key idea 2 : Archaeological research — Archaeological excavation and research began in India under British rule. Sir Alexander Cunningham, first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, chose mainly sites mentioned in Buddhist texts. The Harappan Civilisation was discovered in the time of Sir John Marshall, taking Indian history back to the 3rd millennium BCE or earlier.
Key idea 3 : British writers — James Mill’s ‘The History of British India’ (1817, three volumes) was the first book on India by a British historian; it shows prejudice about Indian culture. Mountstuart Elphinstone’s ‘History of India’ was published in 1841. Grant Duff’s ‘A History of the Mahrattas’ and Colonel Todd’s writing on Rajasthan also show a tendency to look down on Indian culture. William Wilson Hunter’s work was comparatively impartial. Nilkanth Janardan Kirtane and V. K. Rajwade exposed the limits of Grant Duff.
- Easy : Important bakhar for Shivaji Maharaj’s rule? — Sabhasad Bakhar.
- Medium : Harappa discovered in whose time? — Sir John Marshall.
- Exam-type : First book on India by a British historian? — James Mill, 1817.
In the figure: Main bakhars and their subjects.
What happened before Grant Duff’s ‘History of the Mahrattas’? James Grant Duff was the British Resident at Satara from 1818 to 1822. While there he had the chance to collect Maratha records and bakhars.
What happened after Grant Duff’s ‘History of the Mahrattas’? He published ‘A History of the Mahrattas’ in 1826, the first comprehensive history of the Marathas. Later Indian scholars, such as those of the Bharat Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal in Pune (1910), searched original papers to correct and extend it.
Sabhasad = Shivaji; Panipat = Bhausaheb; Holkar = Kaiphiyat.
A bakhar is not only a praise-song; it has many types, but it must be checked against evidence.
Memory clue: Sabhasad-Panipat-Holkar. Memory clue: "Sabhasad Shivaji, Panipat Bhau, Holkar Kaiphiyat".
Spot the difference
| Writer | Work | Feature |
|---|---|---|
| James Mill | History of British India (1817) | Prejudice |
| Elphinstone | History of India (1841) | Governor of Bombay |
| Grant Duff | History of the Mahrattas | Maratha history |
Practice questions
- 1What is a bakhar?
- 2Who wrote Sabhasad Bakhar, when and for what?
- 3State the types of bakhars.
- 4State Cunningham’s contribution to Indian archaeology.
- 5State the importance of the discovery of Harappan Civilisation.
- 6What are the features of James Mill’s writing?
- 7Who exposed the limits of Grant Duff?
- 8Find information on a bakhar or old record from your area.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A type of medieval Marathi historical writing.
- 2By Sabhasad, in Rajaram Maharaj’s time, for Shivaji Maharaj’s rule.
- 3Biographies, dynasties, events, sect, autobiography.
- 4First Director General; excavated Buddhist sites.
- 5Indian history went back to the 3rd millennium BCE.
- 6Prejudice and lack of objectivity.
- 7Kirtane and Rajwade.
- 8The student writes a local record, author and subject.
Colonial, Orientalist and Nationalistic Historiography
Fans of two teams describe the same match differently. Depending on the writer’s viewpoint different trends arise in history writing.
Trends of historiography arise from the historian’s ideological framework: colonial, orientalist and nationalistic.
Key idea 1 : Colonial and orientalist — At first India’s history was written mainly by British officers and missionaries; their prejudice, mockery of Indian culture and support of British rule show. The ‘Cambridge History of India’ (five volumes, 1922–1937) is an example of colonial writing. European scholars who felt curiosity and respect for eastern civilisations were called Orientalists; they studied similarities between Sanskrit and European languages and proposed an ancient mother language of Indo-European tongues. Later Edward Said threw light on the imperial interests of these scholars.
Key idea 2 : Contribution of Orientalism — Sir William Jones founded the Asiatic Society in Kolkata in 1784, which opened the door to research in ancient Indian literature and history. Friedrich Max Muller translated ‘Hitopadesh’ into German, edited the 50 volumes of ‘The Sacred Books of the East’ and published the Rigveda in six volumes and translated it into German.
Key idea 3 : Nationalistic historiography — Indians trained in the British educational system wrote to restore pride in India’s ancient glory and the readers’ self-esteem; this is nationalistic historiography. In Maharashtra Vishnushastri Chiplunkar gave inspiration. Mahadev Govind Ranade, R. G. Bhandarkar, V. D. Savarkar, R. C. Majumdar, K. P. Jayaswal, V. V. Mirashi and A. S. Altekar are renowned nationalistic historians. At times they are blamed for ignoring critical analysis.
- Easy : What did Sir William Jones found? — Asiatic Society, 1784.
- Medium : ‘Cambridge History of India’ is an example of which trend? — Colonial.
- Exam-type : Writing that revives pride in ancient glory? — Nationalistic.
In the figure: Colonial, orientalist and nationalistic trends.
V. K. Rajwade founded the Bharat Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal in Pune on 7 July 1910 (with Sardar Mehendale’s support). He edited 22 volumes of ‘Marathyanchya Itihasachi Sadhane’. (Check with the book)
Colonial-Oriental-National: power, Sanskrit, pride.
Not all Orientalists were anti-India; many studied Sanskrit with respect, though imperial interests behind it were criticised.
Memory clue: Power, Sanskrit, pride. Memory clue: "Colonial = power; Oriental = Sanskrit; National = pride".
Spot the difference
| Trend | Writers | Tendency |
|---|---|---|
| Colonial | British officers, missionaries | Justify British rule |
| Orientalist | Jones, Max Muller | Sanskrit, languages |
| Nationalistic | Ranade, Bhandarkar, Rajwade | Pride in ancient glory |
Practice questions
- 1What is colonial historiography?
- 2Who are called Orientalist scholars?
- 3State the importance of the Asiatic Society.
- 4State the contribution of Max Muller.
- 5What is nationalistic historiography? What are its limits?
- 6State V. K. Rajwade’s work in historiography.
- 7According to Rajwade what is history?
- 8What did Mahadev Govind Ranade state about the rise of the Marathas?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Prejudiced writing that justifies British rule.
- 2European scholars with curiosity and respect for eastern cultures.
- 3It boosted research in ancient Indian literature and history.
- 4Hitopadesh translation, Sacred Books of the East, Rigveda edition.
- 5Reviving pride in ancient glory; accused of ignoring critique.
- 6Founded Bharat Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal; edited 22 volumes.
- 7An all-inclusive picture of past societies, not only politics and wars.
- 8The Maratha rise was prepared over a long time, not sudden.
Post-Independence Historiography
While writing a village history the patil’s story is not enough; the stories of farm labourers, artisans and women are needed too. After independence new voices entered history writing like this.
After independence cultural, social and economic histories were written along with dynastic histories. Three main schools: Marxist, subaltern and feminist.
Key idea 1 : Marxist and subaltern — Marxist historians placed means of production, modes of production and industrial relations at the centre; Dr D. D. Kosambi, Comrade S. A. Dange, R. S. Sharma and Comrade Sharad Patil contributed. Subaltern history means writing history from the bottommost ranks of society; the Italian historian Antonio Gramsci had an important role and Ranajit Guha established this trend. Folklore is an important source for it.
Key idea 2 : Phule and Ambedkar — Before subaltern ideas Mahatma Phule and Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar had put forward similar thoughts. In ‘Gulamgiri’ Phule presented the history of shudra-atishudra communities and showed exploitation of women, shudras and atishudras in the name of religion. Ambedkar drew attention to the role of Dalits through ‘Who Were the Shudras’ and ‘The Untouchables’.
Key idea 3 : Feminist and other trends — Since women’s contribution had been neglected, highlighting it became the task of feminist historians. Tarabai Shinde’s ‘Stripurush Tulana’ (1882) is considered the first feminist book in India. Pandita Ramabai’s ‘The High Caste Hindu Woman’ was published in 1888. Meera Kosambi and Sharmila Rege wrote important works. Some Indian historians wrote without any ideology: Sir Jadunath Sarkar, Surendra Nath Sen, Riyasatkar G. S. Sardesai and T. S. Shejwalkar.
- Easy : Trend stressing means of production? — Marxist.
- Medium : History written from the bottommost ranks? — Subaltern.
- Exam-type : First feminist book in India? — ‘Stripurush Tulana’.
In the figure: Three post-independence trends.
Tarabai Shinde’s ‘Stripurush Tulana’ was published in 1882. (As per the textbook; check with the book)
Marx-Sub-Fem: means, below, women.
Subaltern history is not low-quality history; ‘subaltern’ means the lowest ranks of society.
Memory clue: Marxist, subaltern, feminist. Memory clue: "Means-Below-Women".
Spot the difference
| Trend | Scholars | Work |
|---|---|---|
| Marxist | Kosambi, Dange | Primitive Communism to Slavery |
| Subaltern | Gramsci, Ranajit Guha | Phule: Gulamgiri |
| Feminist | Tarabai Shinde, Meera Kosambi | Stripurush Tulana |
Practice questions
- 1State three trends of post-independence historiography.
- 2State the feature of Marxist historiography.
- 3What is subaltern history?
- 4State the importance of Mahatma Phule’s ‘Gulamgiri’.
- 5Which books did Ambedkar write on the role of Dalits?
- 6Why was feminist historiography needed?
- 7Which are the books of Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai?
- 8Name four Indian historians who wrote without any ideology.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Marxist, subaltern, feminist.
- 2Placed means, modes of production and industrial relations at the centre.
- 3Writing history from the bottommost ranks of society.
- 4It presented history and exploitation of shudras and atishudras.
- 5‘Who Were the Shudras’ and ‘The Untouchables’.
- 6Because women’s role had been neglected.
- 7‘Stripurush Tulana’ and ‘The High Caste Hindu Woman’.
- 8Jadunath Sarkar, Surendra Nath Sen, G. S. Sardesai, T. S. Shejwalkar.