Who the Marathas were and how Shivaji rose
A big tree needs good soil before it grows. The Marathas too had rich soil: their language, their saints and a land of hills and forts. Then a young leader named Shivaji brought them together.
The Marathas are people of the Deccan plateau, mostly present-day Maharashtra, known by their language Marathi. Chhatrapati Shivaji was born in 1630 to Shahji and Jijabai, and he built the idea of Swarājya, a kingdom ruled by its own people.
Key idea 1: Saints, soil and a young leader — The Yadavas of Devagiri ruled Maharashtra in the 13th century, then fell to the Khiljis. Through all this, bhakti saints like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram and Ramdas spread their message in Marathi and gave society a strong cultural base. Shivaji grew up in the Pune jāgīr under Jijabai. At 16 he began taking over neglected forts and strengthening them.
- Easy: Marathi has had a rich literary history since the 12th century.
- Medium: Shivaji set up a navy to secure the west coast, when the Bijapur Sultanate had no full-time navy.
- Exam-type: Shivaji met Afzal Khan at the foot of Pratapgad and killed him; the Marathas hidden in the hills then routed the Khan's army.
In the figure: Culture came first, then forts and a navy gave the Marathas their strength.
Who the Marathas were and how Shivaji rose
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appKey idea 2: Guerrilla war and the first navy — Shivaji used guerrilla warfare: small groups using speed, surprise and knowledge of the hills to defeat bigger armies. When Bijapur sent the veteran Afzal Khan, Shivaji and his advisers arranged a one-to-one meeting below Pratapgad, and he killed the Khan with a small weapon called wāgh nakh. Shivaji also built a navy, a revolutionary step at the time, and strong sea forts such as Sindhudurg.
What happened before? In the 1640s the Pune region suffered because the Deccan sultans, whom the Marathas served, kept fighting each other. Shivaji's father Shahji was often away, so Shivaji grew up in Pune under Jijabai and trusted officials.
What happened next? In 1646, at 16, Shivaji captured Torna fort while the Bijapur court was in confusion. He found a treasure there, and used it to build a new fort, Rajgad, which became the seat of his government for years.
Saints gave the Marathas a cultural base, and Shivaji turned it into a sovereign kingdom with forts, a navy and guerrilla war.
Thinking the Marathas had no earlier history before Shivaji. Their language, saints and Yadava past came first.
Three pillars of his rise: Forts, Fleet, Fighting by surprise. Memory clue: F-F-F, ‘Fort, Fleet, Fast’.
Spot the difference
| Pillar | What it means | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Forts | strongholds on hills and coast | Pratapgad, Sindhudurg |
| Navy | sea power for the west coast | Maratha ships |
| Guerrilla war | surprise and speed | Afzal Khan's defeat |
| Swarājya | a kingdom ruled by its own people | Shivaji's vision |
Practice questions
- 1Where were the Marathas mainly from?
- 2Name two bhakti saints of Maharashtra.
- 3What was a jāgīr?
- 4Why did Shivaji build a navy?
- 5What is guerrilla warfare?
- 6Where did Shivaji meet Afzal Khan?
- 7Cause and result: why did Shivaji capture the neglected forts around Pune, and what did he find at Torna?
- 8Cause and result: what happened to the Bijapur army after Afzal Khan was killed?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The Deccan plateau, mostly present-day Maharashtra.
- 2Any two: Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram, Ramdas.
- 3A piece of land given by a ruler to a noble or soldier as a reward for service, from which he could collect taxes.
- 4To secure the west coast and its resources; Bijapur had no full-time navy.
- 5Fighting with small groups using speed, surprise and knowledge of the land.
- 6At the foot of Pratapgad fort.
- 7He wanted a sovereign kingdom; at Torna he found a treasure and used it to build Rajgad.
- 8The Marathas hidden in the hills attacked and routed it by guerrilla attacks.
Shivaji against the Mughals, and his coronation
Think of a small team that keeps beating a much bigger team. Each match teaches them something. In the same way, years of struggle against the Mughals taught the Marathas how to survive and win.
Shivaji's contest with the Mughal Empire included a night raid, the sack of Surat, a treaty, an escape from Agra and finally his coronation at Raigad in 1674, which formally marked the start of the Maratha Empire.
Key idea 1: Raids, defeat and escape — Shaista Khan invaded with a big army for three years. Shivaji raided his camp at night with a few soldiers; the Khan escaped losing a few fingers and left Maharashtra. Shivaji then sacked the rich Mughal port of Surat, careful not to attack religious places. Aurangzeb sent Jai Singh, and at Purandar Shivaji had to sign a treaty giving up part of his kingdom. At Agra, he was insulted at court, put under house arrest, and escaped by hiding in baskets.
- Easy: Shivaji's raid on Shaista Khan's camp is compared to a modern surgical strike.
- Medium: At Surat he took treasure worth almost one crore of rupees but spared the house of the charitable Mohandas Parekh.
- Exam-type: After the coronation he started his own era, the Rājyābhiṣheka shaka, and minted coins in his name.
In the figure: From a night raid to the coronation, the struggle with the Mughals shaped the Maratha state.
Key idea 2: Coronation, the South and his legacy — In 1674 Shivaji was crowned with full Vedic rites at Raigad as ‘Shri Raja Shiva Chhatrapati’. He then led the dakṣhiṇa-digvijaya, a conquest of the South covering northern Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka, which later gave the Marathas strategic depth against the Mughals. In the South he stopped the Dutch from trading in enslaved people. A fever claimed his life at fifty in 1680, but he inspired others such as Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand.
What happened before? From 1660 Shaista Khan camped in Pune with a big army for about three years, and his troops raided Shivaji's land. On the night of 5 April 1663, Shivaji entered the city with a small party that mixed with a wedding procession.
What happened next? Shaista Khan escaped with the loss of some fingers, and his son was killed. Aurangzeb was angry and transferred him to Bengal.
What happened before? In June 1665 the Treaty of Purandar made Shivaji give up 23 forts. Soon after, Jai Singh persuaded him to meet Aurangzeb at Agra in 1666.
What happened next? At Agra he was insulted and put under guard. In August 1666 he escaped, and back home he began winning the lost forts back.
What happened before? For the coronation, Gaga Bhatt, a learned scholar from Varanasi, came to Raigad. On 6 June 1674 Shivaji was crowned Chhatrapati with Vedic rites.
What happened next? His mother Jijabai died on 18 June 1674, only twelve days later. A second ceremony was held in September.
Shivaji turned defeats into lessons, won back what he lost, and in 1674 gave the Marathas a formal sovereign state.
Thinking Shivaji ruled as a sultan's officer. After 1674 he was an independent Chhatrapati with his own era and coins.
Sequence of 1660s–70s: Shaista Khan raid, Surat, Purandar, Agra, Raigad. Memory clue: R-S-P-A-R, ‘Run, Strike, Pause, Appear, Rule’.
Spot the difference
| Event | What happened | Result |
|---|---|---|
| Raid on Shaista Khan | night attack at Pune | the Khan left Maharashtra |
| Sack of Surat | wealthy Mughal port plundered | insult to Mughal prestige |
| Treaty of Purandar | Shivaji gave up part of his kingdom | later he won back forts |
| Coronation 1674 | crowned at Raigad | formal start of the Maratha Empire |
Practice questions
- 1What was the raid on Shaista Khan's camp compared to?
- 2Which Mughal port did Shivaji sack?
- 3Where was the coronation held, and in which year?
- 4Which general did Aurangzeb send against Shivaji?
- 5What is the dakṣhiṇa-digvijaya?
- 6At what age did Shivaji die?
- 7Cause and result: why did Aurangzeb send Jai Singh against Shivaji, and what was the result at Purandar?
- 8Cause and result: why did Shivaji's coronation matter for the Marathas?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A modern surgical strike.
- 2Surat.
- 3At Raigad fort in 1674.
- 4Jai Singh, a Rajput general.
- 5His conquest of the South, including northern Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka.
- 6Fifty.
- 7The sack of Surat insulted Mughal prestige; Shivaji lost and had to give up part of his kingdom.
- 8It formally started the Maratha Empire with his own era and title.
The Marathas after Shivaji
When a captain leaves a team, the players often take over decisions. The Marathas after Shivaji were like this: power moved from one king to many chiefs, and the Peshwa became the key leader.
After Shivaji, his sons Sambhaji and Rajaram led the fight, then Rajaram's queen Tarabai. Later the Peshwa (prime minister) held the real power, and chiefs ruled large areas, so the state became more decentralised.
Key idea 1: War, Tarabai and the Peshwas — Aurangzeb conquered Bijapur and Golconda, then captured and executed Sambhaji and took Raigad. Rajaram fled to Gingee and the war spread south. Tarabai led large armies into Mughal lands, and Aurangzeb died in the Deccan without defeating the Marathas. Peshwa Bajirao I and his son Nanasaheb spread Maratha power across India.
- Easy: The Peshwa wielded great influence even over the Chhatrapati.
- Medium: The Marathas briefly controlled Lahore, Attock and Peshawar.
- Exam-type: Nana Phadnavis organised the first pan-Indian anti-British alliance, uniting even with Hyder Ali and the Nizam.
In the figure: From war with Aurangzeb to northern expansion and the shock of Panipat.
The Marathas after Shivaji
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appKey idea 2: Panipat, recovery and the British — In 1761 the Marathas suffered a disastrous defeat at Panipat against the Afghans, but recovered quickly under Peshwa Madhavrao I. Under Mahadji Shinde they recaptured Delhi in 1771. Three Anglo-Maratha wars were fought between 1775 and 1818; because of disunity and the British being better organised and equipped, Maratha power ended. In effect the British took India more from the Marathas than from the Mughals.
What happened before? In 1758 the Marathas had pushed far north, reaching Lahore and Attock. The Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali returned in 1759 to take revenge, and the armies met at Panipat.
What happened next? On 14 January 1761 the Marathas lost badly at Panipat, and their commander Sadashivrao Bhau was killed. But within ten years Mahadji Shinde took Delhi back in 1771, and in January 1772 he brought Emperor Shah Alam II back to the Delhi throne.
The Marathas grew into the largest power before the British, but disunity among chiefs let the British end their rule by 1818.
Thinking Panipat 1761 ended Maratha power. They recovered within ten years; the end came after the Anglo-Maratha wars.
Dates to hold: 1761 Panipat (defeat), 1771 Delhi regained, 1818 end of Maratha power. Memory clue: 61 down, 71 up, 18 out.
Spot the difference
| Name or year | What it stands for | Remember |
|---|---|---|
| Tarabai | led armies into Mughal lands | architect of northward expansion |
| Peshwa | prime minister with real power | Bajirao I, Nanasaheb |
| 1761 | Panipat, Maratha defeat | recovery under Madhavrao I |
| 1818 | end of Maratha power | after three Anglo-Maratha wars |
The Marathas after Shivaji
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appPractice questions
- 1Who became the Chhatrapati after Shivaji?
- 2Where did Rajaram flee to?
- 3What does the word Peshwa mean?
- 4Which Maratha leader recaptured Delhi in 1771?
- 5Between which years were the Anglo-Maratha wars fought?
- 6Who is credited with the first pan-Indian anti-British alliance?
- 7Cause and result: why was the defeat at Panipat in 1761 not the end of Maratha power?
- 8Cause and result: what led to the end of Maratha power by 1818?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Sambhaji.
- 2Gingee, in present-day Tamil Nadu.
- 3Prime minister (a Persian term).
- 4Mahadji Shinde.
- 5Between 1775 and 1818.
- 6Nana Phadnavis.
- 7They recovered quickly under Peshwa Madhavrao I and took Delhi back in 1771.
- 8Their increased disunity and the British being better organised and equipped.
Maratha administration
A school runs well when the principal, teachers and monitors each have clear jobs. Shivaji gave his officials clear jobs too, and paid them regularly so that no one became too powerful.
Maratha administration covered civil rule, army, navy, justice and trade. Shivaji paid salaries from the treasury, ended hereditary posts and formed a council of eight ministers called the aṣhṭa pradhāna manḍala.
Key idea 1: Civil and military rule — Officials were paid salaries, and were moved around from time to time. Widows of soldiers got pensions and their sons were offered military posts. Shivaji told officials not to take even a blade of grass by force. The Marathas also levied chauth (25 per cent) and sardeshmukhi (another 10 per cent) from provinces outside their direct rule, and in return protected them. The army had infantry, cavalry and navy; the cavalry had bārgīrs (state-paid) and shiledārs (self-equipped).
- Easy: Shivaji's council of eight included the Pradhān (prime minister), Senāpatī (commander-in-chief) and Nyāyādhīsh (chief justice).
- Medium: A bārgīr's horse and equipment were paid for by the state; a shiledār paid for his own.
- Exam-type: Forts were called the core of the state by the finance minister Ramachandrapant Amatya.
In the figure: Maratha rule rested on paid officials, strong forts, a navy and local justice.
Key idea 2: Forts, navy, courts and trade — Forts were the mainstay of Maratha power: they controlled routes and sheltered the army in guerrilla war. In the 18th century Kanhoji Angre led the navy to many victories by clever use of geography, and challenged the European habit of selling sea passes by demanding passes from them. Justice was given by the local panchāyat, with appeals to a Maratha chief and very limited use of capital punishment. Shivaji also encouraged trade, and his ships sailed to Mocha, Muscat and Malacca.
Paid officials, forts, a navy, local justice and trade together made the Maratha state work.
Mixing up chauth and sardeshmukhi. Chauth is 25 per cent; sardeshmukhi is an additional 10 per cent.
Chauth = 25, Sardeshmukhi = +10. Memory clue: Chauth is a quarter; Sardeshmukhi adds a tenth.
Spot the difference
| Part | Key feature | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Civil | salaries, transfers, 8 ministers | aṣhṭa pradhāna manḍala |
| Revenue | chauth 25%, sardeshmukhi +10% | outside provinces |
| Army | bārgīrs and shiledārs; forts | Mahadji Shinde's European-style army |
| Navy | sea passes challenged | Kanhoji Angre |
Practice questions
- 1What was chauth, and what share was it?
- 2What is an aṣhṭa pradhāna manḍala?
- 3What was the difference between a bārgīr and a shiledār?
- 4Who led the Maratha navy in the 18th century?
- 5What was the panchāyat in Maratha justice?
- 6Who wrote the Ādnyāpatra?
- 7Cause and result: why did Shivaji pay salaries and transfer officials, and what did it prevent?
- 8Cause and result: why did Europeans call Kanhoji Angre a ‘pirate’?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A tax of 25 per cent from provinces not directly under the Marathas, in return for protection.
- 2A council of eight ministers who helped Shivaji.
- 3A bārgīr's horse and gear were paid by the state; a shiledār paid for his own.
- 4Kanhoji Angre.
- 5A local gathering of officials and prominent men that gave justice.
- 6Ramachandrapant Amatya.
- 7So that officials would depend on the king, and not become strong enough to dictate terms.
- 8Because he challenged their sea passes and demanded passes from them.
Culture, Thanjavur and mighty women
A new flag, a new seal and a new language in the royal letters tell people that a kingdom is proud of itself. Shivaji did all three, and later Marathas carried the pride across India.
The Marathas gave a cultural revival: Shivaji used a Sanskrit seal, promoted Marathi and Sanskrit, and rebuilt temples. Women like Tarabai and Ahilyabai Holkar and the Thanjavur Marathas, such as Serfoji II, enriched culture further.
Key idea 1: Language, seal and Modi script — Shivaji's seal had a Sanskrit inscription instead of the usual Persian. He commissioned the Rājya-Vyavahāra-Koṣha, which gave Sanskrit words for Persian terms used in diplomacy. His saffron flag was adopted by all Marathas, and he minted coins in Devanagari. The Moḍī script, a cursive form of Devanagari, was the main script for Maratha letters.
- Easy: The Rājya-Vyavahāra-Koṣha gave Sanskrit equivalents for Persian words, so foreign loanwords in Maratha diplomacy fell.
- Medium: Ahilyabai Holkar rebuilt the Kashi Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and the Somnath temple in Gujarat.
- Exam-type: Serfoji II wrote a Marathi play, Devendra Kuravanji, and started the Dhanwantari Mahal and a printing press.
In the figure: Culture spread from Maharashtra to the north and south, carried by rulers and by women.
Key idea 2: Mighty women and Thanjavur — Tarabai, a fearless queen, sent large armies into Mughal lands and kept Maratha independence safe in a critical period. Ahilyabai Holkar governed the Holkar state around Indore wisely for thirty years, built temples, ghats, wells and roads from Kedarnath to Rameswaram and revived the Maheshwar handloom industry. In Thanjavur, Ekoji, Shivaji's half-brother, began Maratha rule in the late 17th century; Serfoji II patronised musicians, and modern Carnatic music and early Bharatanatyam took shape in his time.
The Marathas revived culture and gave confidence to Indians, from Pune to Thanjavur, and women leaders were central to it.
Thinking Maratha history is only about wars. Their art, language, trade and women leaders are just as important.
Link name and place: Tarabai – northward armies, Ahilyabai – Indore and temples, Serfoji II – Thanjavur and medicine. Memory clue: T-A-S, ‘Take A Step’.
Spot the difference
| Person | Known for | Place |
|---|---|---|
| Tarabai | led armies, saved independence | Maratha state |
| Ahilyabai Holkar | wise ruler, temples, handloom | Indore, Maheshwar |
| Ekoji | began Maratha rule in the South | Thanjavur |
| Serfoji II | play, printing press, medicine centre | Thanjavur |
Culture, Thanjavur and mighty women
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appPractice questions
- 1Which script did the Marathas mainly use for letters?
- 2What was unusual about Shivaji's seal?
- 3Who began Maratha rule at Thanjavur?
- 4Name two temples rebuilt by Ahilyabai Holkar.
- 5What was the Dhanwantari Mahal?
- 6Which dance form took early shape in Serfoji II's time?
- 7Cause and result: why did Shivaji have the Rājya-Vyavahāra-Koṣha written, and what changed?
- 8Cause and result: how did Tarabai's armies protect Maratha independence?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The Moḍī script.
- 2It carried a Sanskrit inscription instead of the usual Persian.
- 3Ekoji, Shivaji's half-brother.
- 4Kashi Vishwanath (Varanasi) and Somnath (Gujarat).
- 5A centre of medicine offering free treatment with Indian and Western medicine.
- 6Bharatanatyam.
- 7To promote Marathi and Sanskrit; foreign loanwords in Maratha diplomacy fell a lot.
- 8Her armies went into Mughal lands in the north, and her strategy outsmarted the Mughals and preserved Maratha independence.