The Delhi Sultanate: rise, rule and troubles
Think of a school monitor who keeps changing every few months. Nobody can plan anything long. Delhi's rulers in this age were a bit like that: five dynasties came and went, and a ruler's average reign was hardly nine years.
The Delhi Sultanate was a kingdom ruled by a sultan from Delhi. It began after Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in 1192 and lasted until the Lodis fell in 1526. Five dynasties of Turkic–Afghan origin ruled it: Mamluks, Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis.
Key idea 1: Strong campaigns, shaky succession — Ala-ud-din Khilji fought Mongol invasions and sent his general Malik Kafur far to the south. Muhammad bin Tughlaq ruled most of the Subcontinent, the first ruler to do so since the Mauryas. But his bold ideas were poorly carried out: the capital was moved from Delhi to Daulatabad and back, and cheap copper ‘token’ coins were declared equal to silver, which led to forgery and confusion in trade.
- Easy: The Sultanate had five dynasties: Mamluks, Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis.
- Medium: Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved the capital over 1,000 km to Daulatabad and then back to Delhi.
- Exam-type: Almost two sultans out of three seized power by removing the earlier sultan, so reigns were short.
In the figure: Five dynasties of Turkic–Afghan origin ruled the Delhi Sultanate, one after another.
The Delhi Sultanate: rise, rule and troubles
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appKey idea 2: Wealth, war and the raid of Timur — The sultans' luxury came mostly from plunder, taxes and the slave trade, but plunder also hurt trade and farming. Some sultans levied the jizya on non-Muslims. At the end of the 14th century Timur raided Delhi, killed or enslaved many and left the city in ruins. After this the Lodis came to power, ruling a Sultanate that had already shrunk.
What happened before? In 1191 Muhammad Ghori was beaten at Tarain by Prithviraj Chauhan, and he went home. He returned with a fresh army the next year.
What happened next? In 1192 Ghori won the second battle of Tarain. He left his general Qutub-ud-din Aibak in charge in India. After Ghori died in 1206, Aibak ruled on his own, and this is taken as the start of the Delhi Sultanate.
The Delhi Sultanate grew by war but was weakened by violent successions, rash plans and invasions.
Thinking one single family ruled the Sultanate. There were five different dynasties.
Order of dynasties: Mamluk, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi. Memory clue: M-K-T-S-L, read as ‘My King Tells Short Lessons’.
Spot the difference
| Dynasty | Known for | Remember |
|---|---|---|
| Mamluks | first dynasty, started after 1192 | Aibak |
| Khiljis | Mongol defence, southern raids | Ala-ud-din |
| Tughlaqs | largest area, failed experiments | Muhammad bin Tughlaq |
| Sayyids and Lodis | Timur's raid, last years | Lodis ended 1526 |
Practice questions
- 1Name the five dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate in order.
- 2Why was a sultan's average reign hardly more than nine years?
- 3Why did Muhammad bin Tughlaq's token currency fail?
- 4Who sent the army to the far south for Ala-ud-din Khilji?
- 5Which invader left Delhi in ruins at the end of the 14th century?
- 6What was the jizya?
- 7Cause and result: why did the capital shift to Daulatabad cause suffering, and what did the sultan do later?
- 8Cause and result: how did Timur's raid change the Sultanate's strength?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Mamluk, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi.
- 2Almost two sultans out of three seized power by removing the earlier one, so rule was unstable.
- 3Cheap copper coins were declared equal to silver, so people forged coins and trade was confused.
- 4His general Malik Kafur.
- 5Timur.
- 6A tax on non-Muslim subjects.
- 7People had to travel over 1,000 km and many died; later he moved the capital back to Delhi.
- 8Delhi was ruined, the Sultanate weakened and its area shrank further under the Lodis.
Rivals of Delhi and the Vijayanagara Empire
When one big shop in the market raises its rates, small shops nearby often work harder. In the same way, while Delhi grew shaky, many kingdoms stood up to it and new powers appeared.
Regional powers such as the Eastern Gangas, the Hoysalas, Mewar and the Bahmani Sultanate resisted Delhi. In the south, brothers Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara Empire, which became the strongest southern power.
Key idea 1: Who stood up to Delhi — The Eastern Ganga king Narasimhadeva I defeated the Sultanate's governor of Bengal and built the Sūrya temple at Konark. The Hoysalas held out in the south until Vijayanagara absorbed them. Rana Kumbha of Mewar repelled later sultanates and built Kumbhalgarh fort, whose wall is 36 km long. The Bahmani Sultanate later broke into five Deccan Sultanates: Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar and Bidar.
- Easy: Narasimhadeva I built the Konark temple partly to mark his victories.
- Medium: Harihara and Bukka first served under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, then founded their own kingdom.
- Exam-type: Krishnadevaraya wrote a Telugu epic, Āmuktamālyada, and supported poets of Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada.
In the figure: Different regions produced their own strong powers while Delhi weakened.
Rivals of Delhi and the Vijayanagara Empire
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appKey idea 2: Krishnadevaraya and the fall of Vijayanagara — In the 16th century Krishnadevaraya took the empire to its peak with military strength and a flowering of art and learning. After he died in 1529, the Deccan Sultanates joined hands and in 1565 defeated the Vijayanagara army at the Battle of Talikota. The city was plundered for months and left in ruins, and the empire broke into smaller regions ruled by Nayakas.
What happened before? In the 1520s the Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes came to sell horses in Vijayanagara. He wrote that the city seemed ‘as large as Rome’ and that its markets were full of goods.
What happened next? In 1565 after Talikota, the victors plundered the city for months. Its people left, and Hampi lay empty. Tirumala, a brother of Ramaraya, shifted the capital to Penukonda.
Vijayanagara rose as a southern shield, reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya, and fell in 1565 when its rivals united.
Confusing Vijayanagara (a Hindu empire in the south, capital at Hampi) with the Bahmani Sultanate (its northern rival).
Peak = Krishnadevaraya (died 1529). Fall = Talikota (1565). Memory clue: peak ’29, fall ’65, the last two digits of 1529 and 1565.
Spot the difference
| Power | Region | Remember |
|---|---|---|
| Eastern Gangas | Odisha, Kalinga | Konark temple |
| Hoysalas | Karnataka | Belur, Halebidu |
| Mewar | Rajasthan | Rana Kumbha, Kumbhalgarh |
| Vijayanagara | South India, Hampi | Krishnadevaraya, Talikota 1565 |
Practice questions
- 1Who founded the Vijayanagara Empire?
- 2Name the five Deccan Sultanates.
- 3Which ruler took Vijayanagara to its peak?
- 4Why is Kumbhalgarh fort famous?
- 5What is a Nayaka?
- 6Who led Vijayanagara forces at Talikota?
- 7Cause and result: why did the Deccan Sultanates unite in 1565, and what happened to Vijayanagara city?
- 8Cause and result: what happened to the empire after Talikota?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Harihara and Bukka Raya.
- 2Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar and Bidar.
- 3Krishnadevaraya.
- 4Its wall, about 36 km long, is among the longest continuous walls in the world.
- 5A former military governor who ruled a region of the broken empire.
- 6Ramaraya, Krishnadevaraya's son-in-law.
- 7They joined hands to defeat their rival; the city was plundered for months and left in ruins.
- 8It split into smaller regions ruled by Nayakas and ended in the mid-17th century.
The Mughal Empire: from Babur to Aurangzeb
Imagine a relay race. One runner falls, the baton slips, and a very young runner picks it up and still wins the race. The Mughal story has such a moment with a thirteen-year-old.
The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur, a descendant of Timur, after he defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. It ended the Delhi Sultanate. Babur used gunpowder, field artillery and matchlock guns.
Key idea 1: Six rulers, six marks — Babur (1526) wrote the Baburnama. Humayun lost ground to Sher Shah Suri and then won it back. Akbar (1556–1605) expanded and steadied the empire, ended the jizya and promoted sulh-i-kul, ‘peace with all’. Jahangir and Shah Jahan, who built the Taj Mahal, saw art and architecture flower. Aurangzeb (1658–1707) brought the empire to its largest size.
- Easy: Babur's win at Panipat in 1526 started the Mughal Empire.
- Medium: Akbar had Sanskrit books like the Mahābhārata translated into Persian at Fatehpur Sikri.
- Exam-type: Aurangzeb spent the last 25 years of his life fighting in the Deccan, which drained the treasury.
In the figure: From Babur's win at Panipat to Aurangzeb's long wars in the Deccan.
The Mughal Empire: from Babur to Aurangzeb
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appKey idea 2: Akbar's style and Aurangzeb's burden — Akbar used marriage alliances, Rajput nobles in his court and interfaith talks along with force. Aurangzeb reimposed the jizya and a pilgrimage tax and ordered the destruction of temples, and he fought long wars in the Deccan. The cost of these wars strained the treasury and is seen as a key reason why Mughal power declined fast after his death in 1707.
What happened before? In January 1556 Emperor Humayun was coming down the stairs of his library in Delhi when he slipped and fell. He died a few days later.
What happened next? His son Akbar, then only 13, was crowned on 14 February 1556 in Punjab. In November that year, his army defeated Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat and took Delhi back.
The empire grew from 1526 to its peak under Aurangzeb, then weakened after 1707 because of costly wars and revolts.
Thinking Akbar won only by force. He also used alliances, tolerance and clever administration.
Remember the first six: Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb. Memory clue: B-H-A-J-S-A, read as ‘Big Horses Always Jump Streams Again’.
Spot the difference
| Ruler | Key fact | Year clue |
|---|---|---|
| Babur | First Panipat | 1526 |
| Akbar | Sulh-i-kul, jizya ended | 1556–1605 |
| Shah Jahan | Taj Mahal | built at Agra |
| Aurangzeb | largest empire, Deccan wars | 1658–1707 |
The Mughal Empire: from Babur to Aurangzeb
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appPractice questions
- 1Whom did Babur defeat at Panipat in 1526?
- 2Which weapons helped Babur win at Panipat?
- 3What does sulh-i-kul mean?
- 4Who built the Taj Mahal?
- 5Why were Aurangzeb's last 25 years costly for the empire?
- 6Who was Hemu and what did he do in 1556?
- 7Cause and result: Humayun died suddenly. What happened to the throne?
- 8Cause and result: how did Aurangzeb's Deccan wars affect the Mughal empire?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Ibrahim Lodi.
- 2Gunpowder, field artillery and matchlock guns.
- 3‘Peace with all’, that is tolerance of all faiths.
- 4Shah Jahan.
- 5Constant wars in the Deccan drained the treasury and strained the administration.
- 6A skilled commander who captured Delhi and ruled briefly as Hemchandra Vikramaditya; he was beaten at Second Panipat.
- 7His 13-year-old son Akbar became emperor.
- 8They drained the treasury and strained the administration, so Mughal power declined fast after 1707.
Resistance to the Mughals
When a big bully takes your things, some give in, some make a friend, and some stand up. In the 17th century people of India did all three, and some stood up very bravely.
Resistance means standing up against a stronger power. Peasants, tribal groups, Rajputs, the Ahoms and the Sikhs resisted the Mughals in different ways. This made it hard for the Mughals to control everything.
Key idea 1: Many groups, many ways — Jat peasants rose against an oppressive Mughal officer. Rani Durgavati of Garha fought Akbar's general in 1564. Maharana Pratap of Mewar refused to accept Mughal rule after Haldighati (1576) and fought on with guerrilla warfare, helped by Bhil archers. The Ahoms, with their paik system, held on to Assam. The Sikh Gurus resisted persecution and Ranjit Singh built a Sikh Empire.
- Easy: The Jat peasants killed an oppressive Mughal officer in the 17th century.
- Medium: At Haldighati in 1576, Maharana Pratap escaped and kept fighting from the Aravalli hills.
- Exam-type: At Saraighat in 1671, Lachit Borphukan's 10,000 men beat a Mughal force of 30,000.
In the figure: Different peoples resisted Mughal power using land, courage and organisation.
Key idea 2: The Ahoms and the Sikhs — Under the paik system every able-bodied Ahom man gave labour or military service in return for land rights, so the kingdom could raise a large force without a permanent army. The Ahoms used rivers, hills and forests to win. Among Sikhs, Guru Arjan was tortured to death under Jahangir, and Guru Tegh Bahadur was beheaded in Delhi in 1675. His son Guru Gobind Singh founded the Khalsa, and later Ranjit Singh ruled a strong Sikh Empire.
What happened before? In 1662 Mir Jumla led a Mughal army into Assam and took the Ahom capital Garhgaon. The Ahoms had to give up Guwahati. Lachit Borphukan retook Guwahati in 1667.
What happened next? In 1671 the Mughals sent a large army to take it back, but Lachit's boats won at Saraighat. Lachit died in 1672, and in 1682 the Ahoms won Guwahati back after the Mughals had held it for a time.
What happened before? In 1675 Kashmiri Pandits went to Guru Tegh Bahadur for protection from forced conversion. He chose to stand by them, and was beheaded in Chandni Chowk, Delhi.
What happened next? His son Guru Gobind Singh founded the Khalsa in 1699 at Anandpur. Tradition says that thousands gathered for Baisakhi, and five brave Sikhs came forward in turn.
Each resisting group used what it had: Rajputs their forts and pride, Ahoms their rivers and paik system, Sikhs their faith and unity.
Thinking resistance was only by kings. Peasants, tribal groups and ordinary soldiers also took part.
Link each place to its group: Haldighati – Mewar, Saraighat – Ahoms, Chandni Chowk – Guru Tegh Bahadur. Memory clue: H-M, S-A, C-T, ‘Hot Milk, Sweet Almond, Cool Tea’.
Spot the difference
| Group | Leader or event | Remember |
|---|---|---|
| Rajputs | Maharana Pratap, Haldighati 1576 | guerrilla war with Bhils |
| Ahoms | Lachit Borphukan, Saraighat 1671 | river battle |
| Sikhs | Guru Tegh Bahadur 1675, Khalsa | courage for others' freedom |
| Gonds | Rani Durgavati 1564 | fought Akbar's general |
Practice questions
- 1Who led the Ahom forces at Saraighat?
- 2Who helped Maharana Pratap as archers?
- 3What was the paik system?
- 4Who founded the Khalsa?
- 5Which empire did Ranjit Singh build?
- 6Which queen of Garha fought Akbar's general in 1564?
- 7Cause and result: why did Guru Gobind Singh form the Khalsa?
- 8Cause and result: how did the Ahoms win at Saraighat against a larger force?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Lachit Borphukan.
- 2The Bhils.
- 3Every able-bodied man gave labour or military service to the state in return for land rights.
- 4Guru Gobind Singh.
- 5The Sikh Empire.
- 6Rani Durgavati.
- 7After his father Guru Tegh Bahadur was beheaded, he formed a martial brotherhood for justice, equality and defence of the faith.
- 8They used the river, the hills and forests and strong guerrilla tactics well.
Administration and people's lives
In your school, a head teacher, class teachers and monitors share the work. A big kingdom needs the same kind of chain of helpers, plus money to pay them.
Administration is how a ruler governs: officers, taxes and rules. The Sultanate used the iqta system, and Akbar built a ministry system, the mansabdari system, and a fair land revenue plan under Todar Mal.
Key idea 1: How rulers governed — Under iqta, nobles (iqtadars) collected taxes from land assigned to them and sent the rest to the sultan. Akbar's ministers included the Diwan (finance), Mir Bakhshi (army), Khan-i-Saman (public works, household) and Sadr (justice and education). Each mansabdar held a rank and had to keep a fixed number of horses, elephants and soldiers, and was paid in jagirs, so an army could be raised quickly. Todar Mal surveyed land and fixed prices crop by crop.
- Easy: Iqtadars were nobles given territory to collect taxes and support the army; their posts were not hereditary.
- Medium: The empire had twelve provinces called subahs, each with ministers.
- Exam-type: Land revenue was usually one-fifth of the produce, but some sultans raised it to one-half.
In the figure: Rulers used land, rank and records to run the empire, while traders ran their own trust systems.
Key idea 2: Farms, trade, hundis and temples — Farming was the mainstay, and irrigation allowed several crops, including cotton for the textile industry. India exported more than it imported through ports like Calicut, Surat, Masulipatnam and Hooghly. Merchants used hundi, a written payment instruction, to move money across kingdoms without carrying coins. Temples were also centres of economic activity, holding land, building tanks and giving credit. In the late 1600s peasants kept little of their produce and many lost their land.
What happened before? Sher Shah Suri had already tried to make taxes fair by measuring the land and fixing the tax by the area and the crop grown.
What happened next? Under Akbar, Todar Mal carried this further. Around 1580 his dahsala settlement used the average yield and prices of the last ten years to fix the tax in cash.
Rulers depended on land revenue, but the economy also ran on trade networks, guilds, hundis and temples.
Thinking the economy stopped when rulers changed. Trade and farming went on, though war and heavy taxes hurt them.
For Akbar's officers: Diwan = money, Mir Bakhshi = army, Khan-i-Saman = works, Sadr = justice. Memory clue: D-M-K-S, read as ‘Don't Miss Kind Souls’.
Spot the difference
| Term | Meaning | Remember |
|---|---|---|
| Iqta | land given to nobles to collect tax | Sultanate |
| Mansabdar | officer with rank, paid by jagir | Akbar |
| Todar Mal | land survey and crop prices | revenue plan |
| Hundi | written payment order | like early banking |
Administration and people's lives
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appPractice questions
- 1What was the iqta system?
- 2Which minister looked after finance under Akbar?
- 3What was a mansabdar paid with?
- 4What is a hundi?
- 5Name two ports from which Indian goods were exported.
- 6What share of produce was the usual land revenue?
- 7Cause and result: why did Akbar's mansabdari system help him raise an army fast?
- 8Cause and result: what happened to many peasants in the late 1600s and why?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Land was assigned to nobles to collect taxes for the Sultan's treasury and army.
- 2The Diwan.
- 3Land grants called jagirs.
- 4A written order to pay a person, used to move money without carrying coins.
- 5Any two: Calicut, Mangalore, Surat, Masulipatnam, Hooghly.
- 6About one-fifth of the produce.
- 7Each mansabdar had to keep a fixed number of troops and animals, so soldiers were ready at short notice.
- 8Peasants kept a small share after taxes, so many lost their land and became bonded labourers.