Composition of the Parliament
Think of a school council with two teams: one chosen directly by all students, and another chosen by class representatives so that every class has a voice. Together they decide school matters. India's Parliament also has two houses.
The Parliament of India is the supreme law-making body of the country. It consists of the President and two houses: the Lok Sabha (House of the People, lower house) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States, upper house). Having two houses is called a bicameral system.
Key idea 1: Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and the presiding officers — The people directly elect the Lok Sabha members on the basis of universal adult franchise. The Constitution allows a maximum of 550 members. Rajya Sabha members are elected indirectly by an electoral college. The number of seats of each state in both houses depends on its population. A group with a majority in the Lok Sabha forms the government. There have been 17 Lok Sabhas since 1952, and the 18th was formed in June 2024. Each house has a presiding officer: the members of the Lok Sabha elect a Speaker, while the Vice President of India is the chairperson of the Rajya Sabha. They keep debates orderly and make sure rules are followed.
- Easy: A voter in your constituency directly chooses the Lok Sabha MP.
- Medium: The Speaker allows members to speak and keeps discipline in the Lok Sabha.
- Exam-type: Translation is provided so that an MP can listen in his or her own language.
In the figure: The Parliament has the President, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha.
Key idea 2: Why two houses, and who inspired the system — Our parliamentary democracy was inspired by Britain, but our freedom fighters also drew on their limited experience of colonial councils, the ancient republics and village panchayats. The Constitution makers felt that one directly elected house would not be enough for the challenges of a new country. In the spirit of federalism, where power is shared between the centre, states and local governments, they created the Rajya Sabha as a Council of States. To make debates accessible, simultaneous interpretation was earlier available in 12 languages and six more (Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Manipuri, Urdu and Sanskrit) were recently added. The Sengol, a gold-plated silver sceptre handed to Pt. Nehru on 14 August 1947, is placed near the Speaker's chair in the new Lok Sabha as a reminder that power must be guided by righteousness.
Parliament = President + Lok Sabha (direct) + Rajya Sabha (indirect). Two houses = bicameral.
Thinking the Rajya Sabha members are elected directly by the people. They are elected indirectly.
Memory clue: Lok Sabha = Lower house = people's Line of choice (direct). Rajya Sabha = Represents states (indirect).
Spot the difference
| Feature | Lok Sabha | Rajya Sabha |
|---|---|---|
| Other name | House of the People | Council of States |
| Rank | Lower house | Upper house |
| Members chosen | directly by the people | indirectly by electoral college |
| Presiding officer | Speaker (elected by members) | Vice President of India |
Practice questions
- 1What does bicameral mean?
- 2Name the two houses of the Parliament.
- 3Who presides over the Rajya Sabha?
- 4Who elects the Speaker of the Lok Sabha?
- 5What is the maximum number of Lok Sabha members under the Constitution?
- 6Why did the Constitution makers want a Rajya Sabha as well?
- 7Cause and result: why are translation services provided in the Parliament, and what is the effect?
- 8Cause and result: why does federalism need a Council of States?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A system with two houses.
- 2The Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha.
- 3The Vice President of India.
- 4Its members.
- 5550.
- 6One directly elected house was thought to be inadequate, and a Council of States represents the states in the spirit of federalism.
- 7So that members and citizens can follow debates in their own language; it makes the Parliament more accessible.
- 8It shares power between the centre and states and balances national unity with local interests.
Legislative functions: making laws
Before a new rule is made in a school, the idea is written down, discussed, changed and finally approved by the principal. A law in India also goes through many careful steps.
The Parliament has four main legislative functions: constitutional functions, lawmaking, executive accountability and financial accountability. A bill is a draft of a proposed law. After the Parliament passes it and it gets the President's assent, it becomes an act, and then a law.
Key idea 1: Constitutional functions and lawmaking — Constitutional functions include electing the President and the Vice President and amending the Constitution. The Parliament also upholds the core values of the Constitution: parliamentary democracy through universal adult franchise, separation of powers, federalism, and the Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles through laws and policies. A bill is introduced in either house, may be referred to a Standing Committee, is read and discussed clause by clause, amended if needed, and voted on. The process is repeated in the other house. Then it gets the President's assent and is published in the Gazette, the official government publication. Not every bill is sent to a committee.
- Easy: The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE) came into force in August 2009.
- Medium: The 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002 added Article 21A: free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14.
- Exam-type: A Money Bill on taxation can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha.
In the figure: A bill travels through several stages before it becomes an act.
Key idea 2: The journey of the RTE and the Money Bill — The RTE has its roots in the Directive Principles. In the early 1990s it was argued in court that education is part of the Right to Life. Article 21A followed in 2002. The RTE bill was tabled in the Rajya Sabha, a committee studied it, and the main debate was about funding for schools, infrastructure and teachers. In August 2009 it passed the Lok Sabha and received the President's assent. A Money Bill deals with financial matters such as taxation and government borrowing. It can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha, and the President's prior recommendation is needed. A Standing Committee is a permanent group of MPs that studies government activities and gives recommendations.
Bill, then committee, then debate and vote, then the other house, then assent, then Gazette: an act.
Thinking every bill starts in the Lok Sabha. Most bills may start in either house; only Money Bills start in the Lok Sabha.
Memory clue: I-C-D-V-A-G, ‘I Can Draft Very Appealing Government laws’: Introduce, Committee, Debate, Vote, Assent, Gazette.
Spot the difference
| Term | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Bill | draft of a law | RTE bill tabled in 2008 |
| Act | bill after assent | RTE Act, 2009 |
| Gazette | official government publication | announces the new law |
| Money Bill | taxes and borrowing | only in Lok Sabha |
Practice questions
- 1What is a bill?
- 2What is the Gazette?
- 3Name the four main functions of the Parliament.
- 4Which Article was added by the 86th Amendment, and what does it say?
- 5Which type of bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha?
- 6What is a Standing Committee?
- 7Cause and result: why did the RTE bill take many years to become an act?
- 8Cause and result: why does a bill go through many stages before becoming law?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A draft of a proposed law.
- 2An official government publication that announces legal documents.
- 3Constitutional functions, lawmaking, executive accountability and financial accountability.
- 4Article 21A: free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14.
- 5A Money Bill.
- 6A permanent group of MPs that scrutinises government work and makes recommendations.
- 7The big debate was funding for new schools, buildings and teachers, and the matter moved only after careful study and political decisions.
- 8Careful study, debate and approval by both houses help make good laws that follow the Constitution.
Holding the government accountable
When you spend your pocket money, your parents may ask where it went. The Parliament asks the same about the government's work and money, because it works for the people.
Accountability means the government must explain and justify its actions and decisions. Executive accountability means ministers must answer to the Lok Sabha. Financial accountability means the Parliament approves and monitors government spending through the annual budget.
Key idea 1: Question Hour, committees and the budget — The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers implement laws and run the government, and they are answerable to the Lok Sabha. The Question Hour, usually the first hour of a sitting, is when MPs ask ministers questions about policies and activities. Committees with MPs of different parties also call ministries to explain and answer. The Parliament also approves the annual budget and checks how funds are distributed among ministries. Because the government spends the people's money, it must give necessary information in time and accurately.
- Easy: An MP asks the Health Minister how many hospitals were built.
- Medium: A Standing Committee on Health and Family Welfare questions officers of the ministry and makes a recommendation.
- Exam-type: The ministry later submits an action taken report.
In the figure: Four tools keep the government answerable to the Parliament.
Key idea 2: Reading a committee report — In a Standing Committee report, there are two parts: the Committee's recommendation and the government's action taken reply. In one example the Committee noticed that some states had no separate Ayush department, so it asked the Ministry of Ayush to persuade them. The ministry replied that this is a state matter, but it had requested the states and that 24 states and union territories already had a separate directorate. This shows who reports to whom: the ministry reports to the Committee, which reports to the Parliament. The Parliament is not always grim; ministers sometimes recite poetry in the house and the atmosphere can be light.
Accountability = explaining actions. Tools: Question Hour, committees and budget approval.
Thinking the Parliament only makes laws. It also watches the government and its money.
Memory clue: Q-C-B, ‘Questions, Committees, Budget’.
Spot the difference
| Tool | Who does it | Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Question Hour | MPs ask ministers | explain policies |
| Committee | MPs of many parties | study and recommend |
| Budget | Parliament approves | monitor spending |
| Action taken report | ministry replies | shows what was done |
Practice questions
- 1What is accountability?
- 2What is the Question Hour?
- 3Who is the Council of Ministers answerable to?
- 4Why does the Parliament keep an eye on government spending?
- 5What two parts does a committee report example show?
- 6Which committee's report on Ayush was studied in the chapter?
- 7Cause and result: why do committees include MPs of different parties?
- 8Cause and result: how does the Question Hour make the government careful?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The duty to explain and justify actions and decisions.
- 2A period, usually the first hour, when MPs ask ministers questions.
- 3The Lok Sabha.
- 4Because the government spends the people's money.
- 5The Committee's recommendation and the government's action taken reply.
- 6The Standing Committee on Health and Family Welfare.
- 7Different views are heard, so the review becomes balanced and fair.
- 8Ministers know they must justify their decisions in public, so they act carefully.
The Union Executive and separation of powers
In a school, the council makes rules and the staff carry them out, while a disciplinary group checks that both are fair. In government too, work is divided among organs.
The Union Executive consists of the President, the Vice President and the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. It enforces the laws made by the Legislature. The Judiciary interprets the laws and checks that they follow the Constitution.
Key idea 1: President, Prime Minister and Council of Ministers — The President is the Head of State and the nominal head of the Executive. The President appoints the Prime Minister and the other ministers, summons the Parliament and gives assent to bills. In political crises, such as when no party has a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the President can use discretionary powers. The Prime Minister is the real (de facto) executive authority. The leader of the majority party or coalition in the Lok Sabha is appointed Prime Minister. The Prime Minister leads the Council of Ministers, coordinates ministries, advises the President and shapes national policy. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. Civil servants work under ministers to implement laws.
- Easy: In 1956 Railway Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri resigned after a train accident, taking moral responsibility.
- Medium: Most bills in the Parliament are brought by the government.
- Exam-type: Civil servants help ministers run the departments.
In the figure: The President is the nominal head, while the Prime Minister and ministers run the government.
Key idea 2: Legislature versus Executive, and checks and balances — The Legislature makes laws and oversees the Executive, while the Executive enforces laws and prepares and implements the budget the Parliament has approved. The Executive is part of the Legislature, since ministers are MPs, yet the roles are different, and this keeps a separation of functions. The Judiciary works through courts and is the custodian of the Constitution. It can step in if Parliament passes a law that goes against the Constitution or if the Executive violates it. This system of checks and balances prevents any one organ from becoming too powerful and protects people's rights.
Legislature makes laws; Executive enforces them; Judiciary checks them against the Constitution.
Thinking the President personally runs the government. The Prime Minister and ministers do.
Memory clue: L-E-J, ‘Laws, Enforce, Judge’.
Spot the difference
| Organ | Main role | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Legislature | makes laws and oversees | Parliament |
| Executive | enforces laws | Prime Minister and ministers |
| Judiciary | interprets laws, protects Constitution | courts |
| President | nominal head | appoints the Prime Minister |
Practice questions
- 1Who forms the Union Executive?
- 2Who is the real executive authority in India?
- 3Who appoints the Prime Minister?
- 4What did Lal Bahadur Shastri do in 1956 and why?
- 5Who is the custodian of the Constitution?
- 6Who helps ministers implement laws?
- 7Cause and result: why can the President use discretion after an election with no clear majority?
- 8Cause and result: why are checks and balances needed?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The President, the Vice President and the Council of Ministers led by the Prime Minister.
- 2The Prime Minister.
- 3The President.
- 4He resigned after a train accident, because he felt a minister must take moral responsibility.
- 5The Judiciary.
- 6Civil servants.
- 7Because no party has the support to form the government, so the President must decide whom to invite.
- 8So that no organ becomes too powerful and people's rights are protected.
State legislatures and challenges
Your school has a house system, and each house has its own captain, but all follow the principal's rules. Similarly, every state has its own legislature and executive, while the Union has the Parliament.
Each state has its own legislature, called the State Assembly (Vidhan Sabha), made up of MLAs. The Constitution divides subjects into the Union List, the State List and the Concurrent List.
Key idea 1: Three lists and the state government — The Union makes laws on the Union List and the states on the State List. On the Concurrent List, such as education and environmental policy, both can legislate, but if the Union passes a law on it, the state must follow it. The RTE applies across India although education is in the Concurrent List. The state structure copies the Union: the Governor, appointed by the President, is the nominal head, and the Chief Minister, leader of the majority in the Vidhan Sabha, is the real head. Both terms are five years, and the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Vidhan Sabha. Money bills start only in the Vidhan Sabha.
- Easy: Education and environmental policy are in the Concurrent List.
- Medium: A state like Karnataka has a Vidhan Soudha housing its legislature.
- Exam-type: A state with a Vidhan Parishad has a bicameral legislature.
In the figure: State governments follow a structure similar to the Union.
Key idea 2: Challenges to the legislature — State legislatures can be unicameral or bicameral. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana and Uttar Pradesh are bicameral, while the rest are unicameral. The Parliament meets in three sessions a year (Budget, Monsoon and Winter), each with sittings of about six hours a day. Challenges include absentee members, uncooperative conduct, poorer debates, disruptions of the Question Hour and low productivity. Some people are concerned that many MPs have criminal cases against them. These problems reduce the number of working hours and delay laws. Citizens can help by staying informed, joining public discussions and engaging constructively with their representatives.
Union List: Union; State List: states; Concurrent List: both, but Union law prevails.
Thinking every state has two houses. Only six states are bicameral.
Memory clue: Six bicameral states: A-B-K-M-T-U, ‘A Big Kingdom Made Two Houses’ (Andhra, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, UP).
Spot the difference
| Feature | Union | State |
|---|---|---|
| Nominal head | President | Governor |
| Real head | Prime Minister | Chief Minister |
| Lower house | Lok Sabha | Vidhan Sabha |
| Upper house | Rajya Sabha | Vidhan Parishad (some states) |
Practice questions
- 1What are MLAs?
- 2What is the Concurrent List?
- 3Who is the nominal head of a state?
- 4Name two bicameral states.
- 5What are the three sessions of the Parliament?
- 6Name two challenges to the legislature.
- 7Cause and result: why is the RTE applicable across India?
- 8Cause and result: why does disruption of sessions harm democracy?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Members of the Legislative Assembly who make laws for the state.
- 2A list of subjects on which both the Union and the states can make laws.
- 3The Governor.
- 4Any two of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh.
- 5Budget, Monsoon and Winter sessions.
- 6Any two: absenteeism, disruptions, low productivity, poor debate.
- 7Education is in the Concurrent List, and when the Union legislates on it, states must follow.
- 8Time is lost, laws are delayed and people's trust in representatives falls.