After the Mauryas: the Śhungas
When the head of a big joint family is gone, relatives set up separate homes; likewise new kingdoms arose when the Maurya empire broke up.
Around 185 BCE the last Maurya emperor was killed by his commander-in-chief Puṣhyamitra Śhunga. The empire broke up and many new kingdoms emerged, often earlier Mauryan tributaries. Since regions were being reorganised, some scholars call this the 'Age of Reorganisation'.
After the Mauryas: the Śhungas
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Open in the appKey points
- New kingdoms competed for control, by matrimonial alliances (marrying a princess into a neighbouring royal house) or by war. Border areas mattered for safety. The weak northwest invited outside invasions.
- Puṣhyamitra founded the Śhunga dynasty, ruling parts of north and central India. He performed the aśhvamedha yajña; the empire was smaller than the Mauryan, yet safe from invaders; after early fighting with the Greeks, relations were friendly. It was gone a century later.
- In the aśhvamedha a horse with soldiers roamed freely; land crossed unchallenged was counted as the king's; if a ruler stopped it, battle decided supremacy.
- Vedic rituals revived, but other schools of thought kept flourishing. Sanskrit became a favoured language for thought and literature; Patañjali's Yoga Sūtras were compiled then. The Śhungas added carved railings and Buddha-life reliefs to the Bharhut Stūpa, among the earliest Buddhist art.
- Easy : Who killed the last Maurya emperor? → His general Puṣhyamitra Śhunga.
- Medium : Why was the aśhvamedha performed? → To declare one's supreme position.
- Exam-type : Why is this period called the 'Age of Reorganisation'?
What happened before? The 'Harshacharita' of Bāṇabhaṭṭa, the Purāṇas and modern references like Britannica say that around 185 BCE the general Puṣhyamitra Śhunga killed the last Maurya emperor Brihadratha at an army parade and took power.
What happened next? Puṣhyamitra then founded the Śhunga dynasty. The Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva (who calls himself Puṣhyamitra's sixth descendant) records that Puṣhyamitra performed two aśhvamedha sacrifices. (Stories of persecution in some Buddhist texts are disputed by historians, so they are left out here.)
After the Mauryas the empire broke up, but many kingdoms were former tributaries that became independent.
Do not think the Śhunga empire was larger than the Mauryan; it was smaller.
Reorganisation = old regions, new arrangement. Memory clue : 'Aśhva = horse, medha = sacrifice': the horse sacrifice.
Spot the difference
| Point | Maurya Empire | Śhunga Empire |
|---|---|---|
| Size | Almost the entire subcontinent | Part of north and central India (smaller) |
| Founder | Chandragupta Maurya | Puṣhyamitra Śhunga |
| Ritual | Aśhoka's dhamma | Aśhvamedha yajña |
Practice questions
- 1How did the Maurya empire break up?
- 2How did post-Maurya kingdoms compete?
- 3Tell about Puṣhyamitra Śhunga.
- 4How was the aśhvamedha performed?
- 5What was the result of the northwest becoming weak after the Mauryas?
- 6Give examples of art and literature in the Śhunga period.
- 7Cause–result: why was the Śhunga empire smaller than the Mauryan?
- 8What is the importance of the Bharhut Stūpa?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A general killed the emperor and many tributary kingdoms became independent
- 2Matrimonial alliances or war
- 3Founder of the Śhunga dynasty; aśhvamedha; first fighting then friendship with Greeks
- 4A horse roamed with soldiers; if stopped, battle
- 5Outside invasions followed
- 6Bharhut sculptures; Yoga Sūtras; Sanskrit literature
- 7The Mauryan territory split; Śhunga control covered only part
- 8A monument with some of the earliest Buddhist art
The Sātavāhanas
Near Pune we can still see Naneghat and Karla caves, which belong to the Sātavāhana period.
The Sātavāhanas (sometimes 'Andhras') ruled large parts of the Deccan (today's Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra) from the 2nd century BCE. Famous capitals: Amrāvatī and Pratiṣhṭhāna (Paithan).
Key points
- Trade: coins show ships, so sea trade mattered; spices, textiles, sandalwood, pearls, ivory reached the Roman Empire; glass and perfumed ointments came in. Tolls and taxes added revenue. Agriculture flourished in the Krishna-Godavari basin.
- Princes were often named after their mothers: Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi (mother Gautamī Balaśhrī). She donated land to Buddhist monks and had an important inscription carved at Nāśhik.
- An inscription in the Naneghat caves records a widow queen performing Vedic rituals including aśhvamedha and donating land, cows, horses, elephants and silver coins; its Brahmi numerals show modern numerals began in India.
- The Sātavāhanas followed Vāsudeva (Kṛiṣhṇa) yet patronised other schools, granting tax-free land to Vedic scholars, Jaina and Buddhist monks. Karla caves were for Buddhist monks; the Pitalkhora yakṣha was made by 'Kanhadāsa, a goldsmith', showing a goldsmith could also carve stone.
- In the 3rd century CE the empire fragmented into smaller kingdoms; main causes were weak central control and gradual economic decline.
- Easy : Two famous Sātavāhana capitals? → Amrāvatī and Pratiṣhṭhāna (Paithan).
- Medium : Why ships on coins? → Sea trade was important.
- Exam-type : Write the reasons for the Sātavāhana empire's break-up.
What happened before? In the west, around Nāśhik, the Śhaka ruler Nahapāna of the Kshaharāta line (a Western Kshatrapa) held power; his inscriptions appear in the caves of Nāśhik and Junnar.
What happened next? The inscription of Gautamī Balaśhrī at Nāśhik says her son Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi uprooted the Kshaharāta family and defeated the Śhakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. Near Nāśhik at Jogalthambi a large hoard of Nahapāna's silver coins was found; many bear Gautamīputra's name struck over them. (Years are disputed, so none is given.)
Gautamīputra = son of Gautamī; the mother's name sits in the king's name.
Sātavāhanas did not back one school only; they patronised many.
Sātavāhana = sea trade (ships on coins). Memory clue : 'Ship coin = sea trade'.
Spot the difference
| Point | Śhungas | Sātavāhanas |
|---|---|---|
| Region | North and central India | Deccan (Andhra, Telangana, Maharashtra) |
| Art/monument | Bharhut Stūpa | Naneghat, Karla, Pitalkhora |
| Trade | Limited mention | Sea trade reaching Rome |
Practice questions
- 1Which region did the Sātavāhanas rule?
- 2What was Sātavāhana trade like?
- 3How did the name Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi arise?
- 4Tell about the queen in the Naneghat inscriptions.
- 5How are modern numerals linked to Brahmi numerals?
- 6How did the Sātavāhanas support other schools of thought?
- 7Cause–result: why did the Sātavāhana empire break up and what followed?
- 8What does the Pitalkhora yakṣha tell about professions?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The Deccan including Andhra, Telangana, Maharashtra
- 2Sea and land trade up to Rome; tolls and taxes gave revenue
- 3From the tradition of naming princes after mothers
- 4She performed Vedic rituals, aśhvamedha and gave donations
- 5Brahmi numerals look like today's numerals; origin in India
- 6By granting tax-free land to Jaina, Buddhist and Vedic scholars
- 7Weak central control and economic decline; regional powers set up new kingdoms
- 8A goldsmith could also carve stone
The Chedis and Khāravela
Visitors still go to see the Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar, linked with Khāravela's time.
After the Mauryas declined, Kalinga (today's Odisha) rose to power under the Chedi kings. Their chief ruler Khāravela followed Jain teachings and was called 'bhikṣhu-rāja' (monk-king), yet respected all schools of thought.
Key points
- The Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar were likely carved for Jain monks; intricate panels and spacious rooms are fine examples of rock-cut architecture.
- The Hāthīgumphā inscription, in Brahmi script, records Khāravela's victorious campaigns and welfare works year after year.
- Khāravela proudly says he convened a council of ascetics and sages from a hundred regions and honoured every sect and repaired temples; protecting all schools of thought is part of the 'Indian ethos'.
- The southern Chera, Chola and Pāṇḍya kingdoms stayed independent even under Mauryan power; Khāravela claims defeating an alliance of southern kings, but the battle site is unknown and he does not seem to have invaded the south.
- Easy : Which dynasty rose in Kalinga after the Mauryas? → The Chedis.
- Medium : What does the Hāthīgumphā inscription record? → Khāravela's campaigns and welfare works.
- Exam-type : How do we know Khāravela respected all schools of thought?
What happened before? According to the Hāthīgumphā inscription, a revered Jina image of Kalinga had earlier been carried off to Magadha by a Nanda king.
What happened next? According to the same inscription, in his twelfth regnal year Khāravela marched on Magadha, made its king 'Bahasatimita' (Brihaspatimitra) bow, and brought the Kalinga Jina image back. (Parts of the inscription are worn; scholars differ on the date and on the king's identity.)
Khāravela was Jain, yet he respected other sects too.
The Hāthīgumphā inscription and Aśhoka's edicts are different; Aśhoka was Mauryan, Khāravela a Chedi.
Khāravela = Kalinga + Jain + Hāthīgumphā. Memory clue : 'Hāthī-gumphā': the 'elephant cave' holds Khāravela's story.
Spot the difference
| Point | Aśhoka's edicts | Hāthīgumphā inscription |
|---|---|---|
| Ruler | Aśhoka (Maurya) | Khāravela (Chedi) |
| Script | Brahmi | Brahmi |
| Subject | Dhamma, welfare, Kalinga war | Campaigns and welfare (year-wise) |
Practice questions
- 1What was Kalinga's position after the Mauryas?
- 2Who was Khāravela?
- 3What is special about the Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves?
- 4What is the importance of the Hāthīgumphā inscription?
- 5How did Khāravela show respect for all sects?
- 6Name the three southern kingdoms and how they stayed independent.
- 7Cause–result: how did Kalinga become powerful after the Mauryas?
- 8What is rock-cut architecture?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Rose under Chedi kings
- 2A Chedi ruler; Jain; monk-king
- 3Rock-carved panels, spacious rooms
- 4Records Khāravela's campaigns and welfare works year-wise
- 5Respect for all sects, temple repair, council of sages
- 6Chera, Chola, Pāṇḍya; Aśhoka's empire did not reach them even at Mauryan height
- 7After Mauryan power weakened, Kalinga grew under Chedi leadership
- 8Buildings/caves carved directly into rock
South India: the Sangam Age
Even today Kaṇṇagi is worshipped in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and millions farm using Kāveri waters.
From the 2nd or 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE the south had three powerful kingdoms, the Cheras, Cholas and Pāṇḍyas. The poets' works are Sangam literature, so this is the Sangam Age; 'sangam' means a gathering of poets (from sangha).
Key points
- Sangam literature is the oldest in south India; it expresses love, heroism and generosity with skill and delicacy, and historians use it to study society and culture.
- Cholas (3rd century BCE–13th century CE): King Karikāla is said to have defeated a combined Chera-Pāṇḍya force. The Kallaṇai (Grand Anicut) is linked to him: it diverts Kāveri water into the delta, bringing more land under cultivation, hence the 'rice bowl of the South'. It is still in use.
- Silappadikāram (epic composed soon after Sangam): Kaṇṇagi, husband Kovalan; falsely accused of theft, he was executed by the Pāṇḍya king; Kaṇṇagi proved his innocence with her second anklet; the king realised his mistake. Justice and the ruler's dharma are its core.
- Cheras (Keralaputra): western Tamil Nadu and Kerala, capital Vanji (today's Karur); trade with Rome and West Asia; exported spices, timber, ivory and pearls. Pāṇḍyas: capital Madurai; famed for pearls; a naval power; Megasthenes describes them as prosperous.
- Easy : Three main southern kingdoms? → Chera, Chola, Pāṇḍya.
- Medium : What does 'sangam' mean? → A gathering (of poets).
- Exam-type : Briefly tell the Silappadikāram story and its message.
Chola → Kāveri → rice bowl.
The Cheras, Cholas and Pāṇḍyas were not in the Maurya empire; they stayed independent.
Che-Cho-Pā: Chera-Vanji, Chola-Kāveri, Pāṇḍya-Madurai. Memory clue : 'Che-Cho-Pā' = three kingdoms; 'Va-Kā-Ma' = Vanji, Kāveri, Madurai.
Spot the difference
| Point | Chola | Chera |
|---|---|---|
| Capital/centre | Puhār (Kāveripattinam) | Vanji (Karur) |
| Known for | Kallaṇai, rice | Spice-pearl trade with Rome |
| Famous ruler/story | Karikāla | Chera coins (royal emblem) |
Practice questions
- 1What is the Sangam Age and why is it so called?
- 2What themes appear in Sangam poetry?
- 3Who was Karikāla?
- 4What is the Kallaṇai and how is it useful?
- 5Which value is the Silappadikāram story based on?
- 6What was the Chera capital and what did they trade?
- 7What were the Pāṇḍyas famous for?
- 8In what sense were the southern kingdoms outside the Maurya empire?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Age of the poets' Sangam literature; sangam = gathering of poets
- 2Love, heroism, generosity, social values
- 3A Chola king; said to have defeated Chera-Pāṇḍya force
- 4Structure diverting Kāveri water; more land farmed
- 5Justice and the ruler's dharma
- 6Vanji (Karur); spices, timber, ivory, pearls
- 7Pearls, navy, capital Madurai
- 8Aśhoka's edicts mention them, yet his empire stopped short of them
The Indo-Greeks and the Śhakas
Our National Calendar (Śhaka Samvat) is still used in government publications; it developed in the Śhaka period.
The satraps Alexander left behind eventually set up independent realms, known as the Indo-Greeks. After the Mauryas, the northwest (roughly today's Pakistan-Afghanistan) was an easy target for them. Later the Śhakas (Indo-Scythians) took over the northwest.
Key points
- The Indo-Greeks came as conquerors but were much influenced by local culture; a blend of Greek and Indian elements shows in governance, art, language and daily life.
- The Heliodorus pillar (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh): named after an Indo-Greek ambassador; its inscription calls Vāsudeva 'god of gods' and says self-restraint, charity and consciousness lead to heaven.
- Information on the Indo-Greeks comes mainly from coins of gold, silver, copper and nickel, with a king on one side and Greek deities on the other; some show Indian deities Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa and Lakṣhmī.
- The Śhakas (Indo-Scythians) ruled from the later 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE, until the Kuṣhāṇas arrived.
- The Śhaka Samvat calendar developed then; it is 78 years behind the Gregorian (79 from January to March) and was adopted as the Indian National Calendar in 1957.
- Easy : Who were the Indo-Greeks? → Independent realms of the satraps Alexander left behind.
- Medium : Who was Heliodorus? → An Indo-Greek ambassador linked to the Vidisha pillar.
- Exam-type : Why might some Indo-Greek coins show Vāsudeva-Kṛiṣhṇa and Lakṣhmī?
What happened before? The Indo-Greek king Antialcidas sent his ambassador Heliodorus to the court of King Bhagabhadra at Vidisha in central India (in Bhagabhadra's fourteenth regnal year; about 110 BCE).
What happened next? Heliodorus, a man of Taxila, became a 'Bhāgavata' (devotee of Vāsudeva); he set up a Garuḍa-standard pillar for Vāsudeva and had an inscription carved in Brahmi. Later it was forgotten and locals worshipped it, smeared with vermilion, as 'Khamba Baba'; in 1877 Alexander Cunningham found it and the inscription was read. (Dates are approximate.)
Information on the Indo-Greeks comes mainly from coins.
Śhaka Samvat is 78 years behind the Gregorian, not ahead.
Śhaka Samvat = Gregorian − 78 (− 79 in January-March). Memory clue : 'Śhaka = śhake': subtract 78 from the Gregorian year.
Spot the difference
| Point | Indo-Greeks | Śhakas |
|---|---|---|
| Origin | Satraps/Greeks left by Alexander | Indo-Scythians |
| Key legacy | Greek-Indian blend, coins | Śhaka Samvat |
| Period | Post-Maurya, earlier | From later 2nd century BCE |
Practice questions
- 1Where did the Indo-Greeks establish power?
- 2Where is the Heliodorus pillar and what does it say?
- 3What do Indo-Greek coins tell us?
- 4How did Indo-Greek rule end?
- 5Who were the Śhakas and how long did they rule?
- 6What is Śhaka Samvat?
- 7Cause–result: why was northwest India an easy target after the Mauryas?
- 8Find the Śhaka Samvat year for 2025 (after March).
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1In northwest India (parts of Pakistan-Afghanistan)
- 2Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh; calls Vāsudeva 'god of gods'; states three values
- 3Portraits of kings, Greek and Indian gods; cultural blending
- 4With the Śhaka invasions
- 5Indo-Scythians; from later 2nd century BCE to 5th century CE
- 6A calendar of the Śhaka period; the National Calendar (1957)
- 7With Mauryan power weak, the northwest was poorly guarded
- 82025 − 78 = 1947 (1946 in January-March)
The Kuṣhāṇas and the confluence of art
Today we see Buddha images everywhere; many of their styles took shape in the Kuṣhāṇa period.
The Kuṣhāṇas, originally from central Asia, entered India (per the textbook) probably in the 2nd century CE. At their peak their empire stretched from central Asia to large parts of north India. Their most powerful ruler was Kaṇiṣhka.
Key points
- Kaṇiṣhka's 'headless' statue carries the Brahmi inscription 'mahārāja rājādhirāja devaputra Kaṇiṣhka'. His coins show the Buddha (in Greek letters BOΔΔO) on one side and Śhiva with the bull Nandi on another, showing his openness to many faiths.
- The Kuṣhāṇas controlled large sections of the Silk Route; trade grew and India was linked with Asia and the West.
- Gāndhāra style, in western Punjab, blended Greco-Roman and Indian features; fine detail in grey-black schist; many Buddha images with realistic anatomy and flowing robes.
- Mathurā style, in the Mathura region of today's Uttar Pradesh; red sandstone; less Greco-Roman influence; fuller, smoothly modelled figures of Kubera, Lakṣhmī, Śhiva, Buddha, yakṣhas and yakṣhiṇīs.
- Sanskrit literature flourished and major texts like the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa were composed; art and architecture kept a dominance of Indian (Hindu-Buddhist) themes.
- Easy : Kaṇiṣhka belonged to which dynasty? → Kuṣhāṇa.
- Medium : Which stone did the Gāndhāra style use? → Grey-black schist.
- Exam-type : Write three differences between Gāndhāra and Mathurā styles.
Gāndhāra = Greek-Indian blend; Mathurā = more Indian.
Gāndhāra relates to the Punjab-Afghanistan-Pakistan region; do not date by name similarity with the Mahābhārata's Gāndhārī.
Gāndhāra = grey stone + Greek; Mathurā = red stone + Indian. Memory clue : 'Grey-Greek-Gāndhāra' and 'Red-Indian-Mathurā'.
Spot the difference
| Point | Gāndhāra style | Mathurā style |
|---|---|---|
| Stone | Grey-black schist | Red sandstone |
| Influence | Greco-Roman + Indian | Mostly Indian |
| Feature | Realistic anatomy, flowing robes | Fuller figures, smooth modelling |
Practice questions
- 1Who were the Kuṣhāṇas?
- 2Why might Kaṇiṣhka's coins show the Buddha and Śhiva?
- 3How did the Silk Route affect Kuṣhāṇa trade?
- 4State the features of the Gāndhāra style.
- 5State the features of the Mathurā style.
- 6Cause–result: why does art show blending in the Kuṣhāṇa period?
- 7Which Sanskrit texts were composed in this period?
- 8Why does the textbook say the past is not confined to one kingdom?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1From central Asia; large empire; Kaṇiṣhka the chief ruler
- 2To show respect for many faiths
- 3Trade grew; India linked with Asia and the West
- 4Greco-Roman-Indian blend; grey-black schist; realistic Buddha images
- 5Red sandstone; Indian deities; fuller figures
- 6Through contact between Greek, Indian and central Asian cultures
- 7Mahābhārata, Rāmāyaṇa
- 8Because cultures grow through interaction and assimilation