The First and the Second Urbanisation
Today we see markets, schools and roads in cities; India once lost its cities for about a thousand years and then built them again.
The Harappan (Indus-Sarasvatī) civilisation is called India's First Urbanisation. The new phase that began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and Indus basin is the Second Urbanisation.
Key points
- The Harappan civilisation disintegrated over a few centuries after 2000 BCE; grand structures, markets, specialised crafts, writing, sanitation and administration vanished. For about a thousand years urban life was almost absent.
- We know the Second Urbanisation from archaeological digs and from late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literature.
- The Second Urbanisation can be said to continue even today.
- Easy : Which was the First Urbanisation? → The Harappan/Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation.
- Medium : Where did the Second Urbanisation begin? → Ganga plains and Indus basin.
- Exam-type : Difference: copper/bronze in the first, iron in the second; monasteries and literature appear in the second.
First Urbanisation = Harappan.
The second did not follow at once; there was a gap of about a thousand years.
First: copper-bronze; Second: iron. Memory clue : 'First = Copper, Second = iron': 1 = Cu, 2 = Fe.
Spot the difference
| Point | First Urbanisation | Second Urbanisation |
|---|---|---|
| Period | Before 2000 BCE | 1st millennium BCE |
| Metal | Copper, bronze | Iron |
| Region | Indus-Sarasvatī basin | Ganga plains and Indus basin |
Practice questions
- 1Which was India's First Urbanisation?
- 2In which region did the Second Urbanisation begin?
- 3From which two sources do we know the Second Urbanisation?
- 4Which features of city life vanished after the Harappan phase?
- 5Write two differences between Harappan and the Second Urbanisation.
- 6About how long was the gap between the two?
- 7What does 'the Second Urbanisation continues today' mean?
- 8List the components of Harappan urban order.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Harappan/Indus-Sarasvatī civilisation
- 2Ganga plains and Indus basin
- 3Archaeological digs; Vedic, Buddhist, Jain literature
- 4Grand structures, markets, specialised crafts, writing, sanitation, administration
- 5Metal (copper-bronze / iron), period, monasteries and literature
- 6About a thousand years
- 7Urbanisation is still going on
- 8Buildings, busy streets and markets, specialised crafts, writing, sanitation, administration
Janapadas and Mahājanapadas
Cities like Rajgir, Ujjain and Mathura exist today; many are about 2,500 years old.
A janapada means 'where the people (jana) set foot (pada)': a clan's territory led by a rājā. As trade grew, some janapadas merged into larger states, the mahājanapadas, by about the 8th-7th century BCE.
Janapadas and Mahājanapadas
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appKey points
- The common list has 16 mahājanapadas, from Gāndhāra in the northwest to Anga in the east and Aśhmaka in central India; most lie in the Ganga plains.
- Why many in the Ganga plains? Fertile farmland, iron ore in hills, new trade routes.
- Most powerful: Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti. Capitals had moats and ramparts, and narrow gateways so guards could control people and goods.
- Most were hereditary monarchs; the king collected taxes, kept order, built fortifications and maintained an army.
- Easy : Meaning of janapada? → The place where people settled.
- Medium : How many mahājanapadas are in the common list? → 16.
- Exam-type : Why moats around capitals? → For defence.
Magadha lay in part of today's Bihar.
Do not think mahājanapadas came before janapadas; they grew as janapadas merged.
Four strong: Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti. Memory clue : M-K-V-A = Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti.
Spot the difference
| Point | Janapada | Mahājanapada |
|---|---|---|
| Size | A clan's territory | A large state |
| Head | Rājā | Rājā (or gaṇa assembly) |
| Example | A clan's land | Magadha, Kosala, Avanti |
Practice questions
- 1Who headed a janapada?
- 2How many mahājanapadas are in the common list?
- 3Name the four most powerful mahājanapadas.
- 4Why were capitals fortified?
- 5Why were most mahājanapadas in the Ganga plains?
- 6Why were gateways kept narrow?
- 7State a king's duties.
- 8How did janapadas turn into mahājanapadas?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Rājā
- 216
- 3Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti
- 4To defend against enemies
- 5Fertile farmland, iron ore, trade routes
- 6Guards could check movement of people and goods
- 7Collect taxes, keep order, build forts, maintain army
- 8Trade connected them and some merged
Early democratic traditions
Like a village assembly today, sabhā and samiti met to take decisions.
Each janapada had a sabhā or samiti; a ruler was expected to take advice, not rule arbitrarily. Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla were not monarchies but gaṇas or sanghas: the assembly decided through discussion and, if needed, voting, even choosing the ruler.
Key points
- Some texts say an incompetent ruler could be removed by the assembly; but this was not necessarily an established law since our data is incomplete.
- Scholars call the gaṇas 'early republics', among the earliest such systems in the world.
- In states like Magadha, Kosala and Avanti the rājā was supreme, helped by ministers and an assembly of elders.
- Easy : Where do sabhā and samiti first appear? → The Vedas.
- Medium : Why were Vajji and Malla not monarchies? → The assembly chose the ruler.
- Exam-type : Gaṇa vs monarchy: who decides, assembly or king.
What happened before? The Pali text 'Mahāparinibbāna Sutta' says King Ajātaśhatru of Magadha was planning to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister Vassakāra to the Buddha at Rājgir. Instead of answering directly, the Buddha asked Ānanda, 'Do the Vajjis hold frequent assemblies?' and said that as long as they meet often, decide in agreement and respect elders, they would prosper. Vassakāra replied that the Vajjis could not be beaten in battle, only through treachery or discord.
What happened next? Some years later (in the 5th century BCE) Ajātaśhatru defeated the Vajji confederacy and annexed its land to Magadha. Traditions say the minister Vassakāra split the Vajjis from within. With the Vajjis gone, Magadha became the strongest state of the Ganga plains. (Sources differ on exact years and details, so no exact year is given.)
Gaṇas are called 'early republics'.
Do not assume every king could be removed; some texts mention it but it was not a firm law.
Monarchy = one ruler; gaṇa = group of members. Memory clue : 'Gaṇa = Group decides'.
Spot the difference
| Point | Monarchy (Magadha) | Gaṇa-saṅgha (Vajji) |
|---|---|---|
| Who decides | King, aided by ministers | Assembly by discussion and vote |
| How the ruler is chosen | By heredity | Chosen by the assembly |
| Example | Magadha, Kosala, Avanti | Vajji, Malla |
Practice questions
- 1Where do the words sabhā and samiti first appear?
- 2Which two mahājanapadas were gaṇas or sanghas?
- 3What is a gaṇa-saṅgha?
- 4Why was a king expected to take advice from the assembly?
- 5How was the ruler chosen among the Vajjis?
- 6Why are gaṇas called 'early republics'?
- 7Why should the statement 'assembly could remove an incompetent king' be read with care?
- 8Give two differences between monarchy and gaṇa-saṅgha.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1In the Vedas
- 2Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla
- 3A system where the assembly takes decisions
- 4So that he does not rule arbitrarily
- 5The assembly chose by discussion and voting
- 6Members took decisions and chose the ruler; among the earliest such systems
- 7Our data is incomplete; it was not a firm law
- 8Decision-maker (king/assembly), choice of ruler (heredity/assembly)
New innovations: iron and coins
Farmers still use iron ploughs and sickles, and markets run on coins; their story began in this period.
Urbanisation needs technology. A big shift in the Second Urbanisation was iron; and growing trade led to the first use of coins in India.
Key points
- Iron extraction and shaping were perfected in some regions from early 2nd millennium BCE; by the late 2nd millennium BCE iron tools were widespread and allowed larger-scale farming.
- Iron weapons were lighter and sharper than bronze (swords, spears, arrows, shields); there is some evidence of warfare between neighbouring mahājanapadas.
- The first Indian coins were silver with symbols punched into them, called punch-marked coins; later copper, gold and others. A mahājanapada usually issued its own coins, but coins of neighbours also circulated.
- Easy : First Indian coins were of which metal? → Silver.
- Medium : What are punch-marked coins? → Silver coins with symbols punched in.
- Exam-type : How did iron allow large-scale farming? → Strong iron tools became widely available.
Coins became necessary for trade.
Iron was not discovered in the 1st millennium BCE; the technique existed earlier, everyday use spread over a few centuries.
Iron = farming + weapons; coins = trade. Memory clue : I-F-W = Iron, Farming, Weapons; C-T = Coins, Trade.
Spot the difference
| Point | Iron | Coins |
|---|---|---|
| Use | Tools, weapons | Exchange, trade |
| Benefit | Bigger farms, sharper weapons | Easy exchange |
| Example | Iron plough, sword | Silver punch-marked coins |
Practice questions
- 1Of which metal were the first Indian coins?
- 2Why are they called punch-marked coins?
- 3How did iron tools help farming?
- 4How were iron weapons better than bronze ones?
- 5Why did coins become necessary?
- 6Compare the metals of Harappan and Second Urbanisation.
- 7Why might each mahājanapada issue its own coins?
- 8How did iron and coins help urbanisation?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Silver
- 2Symbols were punched into silver coins
- 3Large-scale farming became possible
- 4Lighter and sharper
- 5For growing trade
- 6Harappan: copper, bronze; Second: iron
- 7To show the state's own mark and authority (a guess)
- 8Farming grew, trade got easier, cities thrived
The varṇa–jāti system
In a town there are teachers, shopkeepers, farmers and carpenters; this shows how society forms groups.
As society grows complex it forms groups by class and occupation. India had two categories: jāti (a community tied to an occupation, skill passed on through generations) and varṇa (a Vedic concept; four varṇas).
Key points
- Four varṇas: Brahmins (knowledge, rituals), Kshatriyas (defence, war if needed), Vaishyas (trade, business, agriculture), Shudras (artisans, workers, servants).
- The system was more flexible early on; farmers hit by drought moved to cities for new work and some Brahmins took up trade or military activity. Over time it became rigid and led to inequality and discrimination.
- The word 'caste' comes from Portuguese 'casta', used by Portuguese travellers in the 16th century. Scholars broadly agree the system hardened especially under British rule.
- Easy : What is jāti based on? → A specific occupation and skills.
- Medium : What was the work of Vaishyas? → Trade, business, agriculture.
- Exam-type : What shows it was once flexible? → Texts and inscriptions mention changes of occupation.
Varṇa comes from Vedic texts; jāti is linked to occupation.
Do not treat varṇa and jāti as the same; they are two ideas.
Varṇa = 4; jāti = many, tied to occupations. Memory clue : 'B-K-V-S' = the four varṇas in order.
Spot the difference
| Point | Varṇa | Jāti |
|---|---|---|
| Number | Four | Many |
| Origin | Vedic texts | Occupation and skill |
| Nature | A concept/classification | A specific community |
Practice questions
- 1Name the two social categories in India.
- 2Name the four varṇas.
- 3'Caste' comes from which language?
- 4What is a jāti?
- 5Give one example showing the system was once flexible.
- 6Why do groups form in a complex society?
- 7What were the effects when the system became rigid?
- 8State the difference between varṇa and jāti.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Varṇa and jāti
- 2Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra
- 3Portuguese ('casta')
- 4A community tied to a specific occupation
- 5Farmers hit by drought moved to cities for new work
- 6For governance, education, trade, arts, etc.
- 7Inequality and discrimination grew, especially towards lower jātis
- 8Varṇa = four, from Vedic texts; jāti = many, tied to occupation