Part 2, Chapter 3: Indian Architecture

Key idea 1: Harappan cities — Harappan architecture is the earliest known tradition of urban planning in the subcontinent: laid-out cities, standard designs, drainage and water management. Most cities used bricks. Almost every house in Mohenjo-daro had a bathing area, and used water left through drains. Dholavira in the Rann of Kachchh made much use of local stone.

• Easy: The Sanchi Stupa was built under Ashoka’s patronage.
• Medium: The Udayagiri–Khandagiri caves are in Odisha.
• Exam-type: What is pradakshina? — Walking around clockwise.

In the figure: Architecture developed from cities to stupas and caves.

Key idea 2: Stupas — From the 4th–3rd century BCE Buddhism led to stupas, dome-shaped structures holding relics of the Buddha or revered monks. The main stupa at Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh was patronised by Ashoka and marks the earliest phase of monumental stone architecture in India. It has a torana (gateway) and a vedika (railing). Bharhut has inscriptions naming donors. Early on the Buddha was shown through symbols such as footprints, the wheel of dharma or the stupa.

Key idea 3: Rock-cut caves — Rock-cut caves are places of worship, residence or assembly carved directly into rock. The Udayagiri–Khandagiri caves in Odisha began in the 2nd century BCE; most were homes of Jain monks. Ajanta and Ellora in Maharashtra are famous. Ellora’s Kailasha Temple is carved from a single rock; cave 10 has a huge seated Buddha leaning on a stupa, with an aisle for circumambulation.

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Key idea 1: Harappa to the Ganga — Because India depends on monsoon rain, many ways of storing water developed. Harappans built wells with trapezoid-shaped bricks that lock together and do not collapse inward; Dholavira had large reservoirs. At Shringaverpur in Uttar Pradesh large connected reservoirs were found, filled from the Ganga’s seasonal floods; the first tanks let silt settle.

• Easy: Harappan wells used trapezoid-shaped bricks.
• Medium: Rani ki Vav is in Gujarat.
• Exam-type: What do the first tanks at Shringaverpur do? — Let silt settle.

In the figure: India built water structures from simple ponds to complex stepwells.

Key idea 2: Stepwells and pushkarinis — Stepwells (vavs, baoris) developed in Gujarat and Rajasthan; Rani ki Vav has many pillared levels and hundreds of statues. Stepwells were social spaces with cooler temperatures. Temples had pushkarinis. Today many are threatened by pollution and poor upkeep; locals, environmentalists and NGOs try to preserve them.

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Key idea 1: Parts of a temple — Classical temples arose in the Gupta era and followed the rules of shilpashastra. Main parts: an entrance (gopuram in the south, torana in some northern temples), one or more mandapas (halls), the garbhagriha, and above it the shikhara/vimana. The main axis is generally east–west with the garbhagriha facing east. A temple is planned like the body of the cosmic being (Purusha); entering is a journey from the outer world to the inner one. Temples were centres of worship, learning, art and economic life.

• Easy: The gopuram is the entrance in the south.
• Medium: The Brihadishvara Temple was built around 1010.
• Exam-type: Shikhara vs vimana? — Shikhara in the north, vimana in the south.

In the figure: Temples grew from small shrines to large complexes.

Key idea 2: Famous examples — Until the 8th–9th century temples were modest; from the 10th century they grew into vast complexes. The Brihadishvara Temple at Thanjavur was built by Rajaraja Chola I around 1010; its vimana is over 60 m high and it has a huge Nandi carved from one stone. The Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar is early 11th century, in sandstone and laterite. The Dilwara Jain temples at Mount Abu (11th–13th century) were built by the Solanki dynasty in white marble. Bishnupur’s terracotta brick temples are 17th–18th century. The Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) in Amritsar is the holiest Sikh shrine; it was founded by Guru Ramdas and its construction was continued by Guru Arjan Dev in 1588.

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Key idea 1: Mosques — A mosque has a prayer hall facing Mecca; larger ones have domes and minarets. Large mosques for Friday prayers are called ‘Jama Masjid’. The Jama Masjid of Ahmedabad was built by Sultan Ahmed Shah I in the 15th century; its stone jalis and temple-like pillars suggest local Hindu and Jain artisans helped. Delhi’s Jama Masjid is India’s largest, built by Shah Jahan in the mid-17th century with about 5,000 workers; it has two 40 m minarets and a courtyard for 25,000 people.

• Easy: Jama means ‘gathering’; masjid means mosque.
• Medium: Mehrangarh is at Jodhpur.
• Exam-type: Benefit of a jali? — Lets air through and looks beautiful.

In the figure: Palaces and forts show a blending of traditions.

Key idea 2: Forts and palaces — Forts were placed near important routes, often on hills. Jodhpur’s Mehrangarh began in the mid-15th century and was expanded by Rajputs; red sandstone. Agra’s Red Fort was brick, rebuilt by Akbar; Shah Jahan replaced many buildings with marble. Its fountains worked with water lifted by Persian wheels. Orchha’s fort-palace was built by Bundela kings in the mid-16th century; the Jahangir Mahal blends Rajput and Mughal styles. The Mysuru Palace is an example of Indo-Saracenic style, home of the Wadiyar dynasty.

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Key idea 1: Humayun’s Tomb — Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi was begun in 1558 by Humayun’s chief wife Bega Begum; Persian architects designed it and Persian aesthetics became part of Mughal tradition. It holds the tombs of several Mughals including Dara Shikoh. In the 1857 rebellion the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar took refuge here. Burial is an Islamic and Christian practice; Buddhists, Jains and Hindus cremate, so in Rajasthan and central India we see only cenotaphs (e.g. Jaswant Thada).

• Easy: Bega Begum had Humayun’s Tomb built.
• Medium: Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal for Mumtaz Mahal.
• Exam-type: Cenotaph vs tomb? — No burial in a cenotaph; burial in a tomb.

In the figure: The Taj Mahal blends elements of three cultures.

Key idea 2: The Taj Mahal — Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal in the mid-17th century for his queen Mumtaz Mahal. It blends three cultures: charbagh garden and large arched doorways (Persian); Arabic calligraphy from the Qur’an and geometric patterns (Arabic); chhatris, lotus designs and cut-work marble screens (Indian). The walls have inlay of coloured semi-precious stones. In the 1970s industrial pollution tinged the marble yellow; in the mid-1990s a ban on industrial pollution was imposed.

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Key idea 1: Traditional houses — A common plan for rich households is a central courtyard with rooms around; even some large Harappan houses of about 4,500 years ago had this. The havelis of Shekhawati in Rajasthan have courtyards and painted frescoes; many are now hotels or museums. Chettinad houses in Tamil Nadu used teak from Burma and marble from Italy; the courtyard was used for drying papads and chillies.

• Easy: Chettinad houses are in Tamil Nadu.
• Medium: Victoria Memorial is an example of Indo-Saracenic style.
• Exam-type: Benefit of a courtyard? — Airflow, rain collection, coolness, privacy.

In the figure: Climate, materials and culture shaped house design.

Key idea 2: Churches and colonial buildings — By tradition the first churches were built on Kerala’s coast. Some imitated European styles; Kerala’s own churches used local features (sloped tiled roofs, a flag post). Under the British Raj (mid-19th to early 20th century) the Indo-Saracenic style flourished with domes, pointed arches and minarets; e.g. the Victoria Memorial in Kolkata. The Mysuru Palace was built in the early 20th century.

Key idea 3: Preserving heritage — Many monuments are neglected. Government bodies are responsible, but unless citizens share the duty, much will be lost. A Fundamental Duty in the Constitution: to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.

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