Culture, the Bhakti and Sufi traditions
A lullaby from your grandmother or a special family recipe is passed to the next generation. That shared way of life, handed down over time, is culture.
Culture is a group’s shared way of life — values, customs, art, music, literature, philosophy and science — passed down the generations.
Key idea 1: Culture endured through political change — From the 13th to the 17th century new rulers brought new administration, arts and ideas, yet Indian culture endured and grew richer. The textbook points to three things: traditional practices continued, rulers of many backgrounds patronised arts and languages, and people from all sections of society took part.
- Easy: Kabir belonged to present-day Uttar Pradesh and Mirabai to Rajasthan.
- Medium: The bhakti path did not require rituals or priests.
- Exam-type: In Kabir’s couplet, when wheat becomes flour the grains lose their separateness; likewise ‘Ram’ and ‘Rahim’ are names of one God.
In the figure: The bhakti tradition spread from the north to the south.
Key idea 2: The Bhakti tradition — The bhakti marga is one of several paths to moksha and needed no rituals or priests. Saints composed songs of love, compassion and equality in local languages. In the north: Kabir (raised in a weaver family, taught one God, criticised the rituals of both religions) and Ravidas (equality); Guru Nanak (one God, equality of all; his teachings are in the Guru Granth Sahib); in Rajasthan Mirabai; in the east Chaitanya Mahaprabhu; in the west Tukaram, Dnyaneshwar, Namdev; in the south Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa. In Tamil Nadu the hymns of the Alvars and Nayanars were recited in homes and temples.
Key idea 3: The Sufi tradition — The Sufi path is a way within Islam that stresses devotion and an inner search for God. Sufi saints joined Indian classical styles with their own to sing devotional ‘qawwali’; Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti and Nizamuddin Auliya encouraged music. Sufis also took up meditation and ‘zikr’ (remembering God). Bhakti and Sufi traditions often overlapped.
Both traditions taught love, devotion and unity, and joined people through music.
Believing culture thrived only because of rulers’ patronage. The textbook says people’s participation made it thrive.
The western saints are ‘our own’. Memory clue: West = Maharashtra’s Tukaram, Dnyaneshwar, Namdev; South = two ‘dasas’ (Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa).
Spot the difference
| Point | Bhakti | Sufi |
|---|---|---|
| Origin | Indian tradition | A path within Islam |
| Expression | Bhajans, kirtans, dance | Qawwali, zikr, music |
| Examples | Kabir, Mirabai, Tukaram | Moinuddin Chishti, Nizamuddin Auliya |
Practice questions
- 1What is the ‘bhakti marga’?
- 2In which text are Guru Nanak’s teachings preserved?
- 3What is ‘qawwali’?
- 4What was the message of Kabir and Ravidas?
- 5Why did the bhakti saints use local languages?
- 6Name two saints of the south and three of the west.
- 7Why did the Bhakti and Sufi traditions come close to each other?
- 8Why might the bhakti tradition have grown stronger in a time of upheaval?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The path of devotion to moksha that needs no rituals or priests.
- 2The Guru Granth Sahib.
- 3Sufi devotional songs that blend in Indian classical styles.
- 4God is one; rituals and caste barriers are meaningless; all are equal.
- 5So the message could reach ordinary people from all sections of society.
- 6South: Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa; West: Tukaram, Dnyaneshwar, Namdev.
- 7Both stressed love and devotion, used music, and shared ideas such as the oneness of God.
- 8People sought spiritual resilience, and bhakti connected them through song, music and dance.
Music, miniature paintings and gardens
At a village fair, songs, dance and storytelling go together. Such gatherings carried culture from village to village.
A miniature painting is a small, finely detailed painting on paper. Rajput paintings show Hindu themes; Mughal paintings show court scenes, portraits and landscapes with Persian influence.
Key idea 1: Music and storytelling — The Natyashastra joins dance, drama and music. In Rajasthan puppetry and in Odisha, West Bengal and Andhra ‘pattachitra’ (patta = cloth) travelling bards told stories of the Ramayana and Mahabharata with songs. Classical music has two streams: Hindustani in the north and Carnatic in the south. In the late 15th century dhrupad flourished under Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior. Tansen became one of the nine jewels of Akbar’s court. Amir Khusro is credited with developing qawwali.
- Easy: Hindustani music is the northern stream; Carnatic is the southern.
- Medium: In Akbar’s atelier artists worked in a team: one drew lines, another coloured, a third finished.
- Exam-type: How does Tansen’s music show cultural blending? — Despite a Sufi saint’s influence he also composed in praise of Krishna and Shiva.
In the figure: Painting moved from walls to paper and the two styles borrowed from each other.
Key idea 2: Rajput and Mughal painting — Paper reached India in the 10th–11th century, and paintings moved from walls to paper. Rajput painting flourished from the 15th to the 19th century: lotus, banyan, elephants, peacocks. Mughal miniatures reached their height in Akbar’s atelier, where one artist drew lines, another filled colours and a third added finishing touches. Akbar had the Mahabharata translated into Persian as the ‘Razmnama’ with paintings. Some Mughal painters moved to Bikaner, and the two styles blended.
Key idea 3: Gardens — Gardens such as udyana, vatika and nandana were known from Vedic times, often beside a temple with a tank. The Mughals brought the Persian ‘charbagh’ design: four parts, water channels, fountains and terraces, symbolising the rivers of Paradise. Such gardens were built around forts, tombs and mosques. The garden at Amer Fort in Rajasthan also has geometric patterns and water channels.
Indian arts absorbed new currents while keeping their core; Tansen and the miniatures are examples.
Assuming the Rajput and Mughal styles stayed completely apart. They borrowed colours, techniques and elements from each other.
Tell the two styles apart by theme. Memory clue: Rajput = ‘Purana stories’; Mughal = ‘people of the court’ (portraits).
Spot the difference
| Point | Rajput paintings | Mughal paintings |
|---|---|---|
| Themes | Hindu stories, lotus, peacock | Court, portraits, landscapes |
| Influence | Local tradition | Persian style |
| Patronage | Rajput courts | Akbar’s atelier |
Practice questions
- 1Where did Hindustani and Carnatic music develop?
- 2What is ‘pattachitra’?
- 3What is a ‘charbagh’?
- 4What is the ‘Razmnama’?
- 5When did paper reach India and how did it help painting?
- 6Describe how Akbar’s atelier worked.
- 7What happened when Mughal painters moved to Bikaner?
- 8What traces of Mughal gardens appear at Amer Fort?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Hindustani in the north, Carnatic in the south.
- 2Cloth paintings used by bards to tell epic stories.
- 3A Persian four-part garden with water channels, fountains and terraces.
- 4A Persian translation of the Mahabharata commissioned by Akbar.
- 5In the 10th–11th century; artists began painting on paper instead of walls.
- 6One artist drew lines, another filled colours, a third added finishing touches.
- 7Mughal and Rajput elements blended in the local painting.
- 8Geometric patterns and water channels used for beauty as well as irrigation.
Women in society: roles that varied by region
Look at who appears in your history book. In every age and every region women’s roles were different.
Purdah (Persian for curtain) was the practice of veiling or keeping women apart. In parts of north India the ghunghat, or veil, became common.
Key idea 1: Purdah and changing conditions — A 10th-century Arab chronicler noted that many Indian princes let women be seen at court without veils. From the 12th century invasions and campaigns put women at risk; attempts to protect them reduced public life and the practice of purdah grew in north India. Some scholars think the veil also became a sign of high status. There is little evidence of it in the south.
- Easy: Razia Sultan ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century.
- Medium: Purdah spread more in north India; there is little evidence of it in the south.
- Exam-type: What do women’s temple donations show? — Women of wealthy families had wealth and public influence.
In the figure: Women’s roles differed between north and south, but exceptional women appear in both.
Key idea 2: Razia Sultan and Nur Jahan — Razia Sultan (early 13th century) was the only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. She set up educational institutions, favoured merit-based administration and appeared at court unveiled; nobles opposed her and her reign was short. In the early 17th century Nur Jahan was very influential in the Mughal empire: she issued orders, attended court and coins were minted in her name. She supported art, architecture and trade.
Key idea 3: Women in south India — In the south things largely stayed the same. Elite women took part in administration and public life. Carvings at Hampi show women in many activities. The Portuguese traveller Fernão Nunes wrote that women at the Vijayanagara court wrestled, kept accounts and played music. Queens donated villages to temples, and women built community halls and wells. The poet Tirumalamba wrote ‘Varadambika Parinaya’ in Sanskrit.
Women’s condition did not change the same way everywhere; it differed by region and circumstance.
Saying ‘all women lived behind a veil’. The textbook says purdah was mostly in north India and often did not cover the whole face.
Two names, two centuries. Memory clue: Razia = 13th century; Nur Jahan = 17th century (four centuries apart!).
Spot the difference
| Point | North India | South India |
|---|---|---|
| Purdah | Spread in many parts | Little evidence |
| Public role | Less, but exceptions like Razia, Nur Jahan | Elite women in administration |
| Example | Coins in Nur Jahan’s name | Women at Vijayanagara court |
Practice questions
- 1Who was the only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate?
- 2What does the word ‘purdah’ mean?
- 3What was issued in Nur Jahan’s name?
- 4Why did purdah spread more in the north?
- 5What work did women do at Vijayanagara?
- 6Which of Razia’s actions made her unpopular?
- 7What do women’s donations tell us about society?
- 8Why did the same events affect women differently by region?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Razia Sultan.
- 2In Persian, curtain or veil.
- 3Coins (and she issued royal orders).
- 4Invasions and campaigns raised concern for women’s safety.
- 5Wrestling, keeping accounts, writing state records, music.
- 6Appearing unveiled and speaking directly to the public; the nobles opposed it.
- 7Some women had wealth and took initiative in public works.
- 8Invasions and campaigns hit the north more; in the south earlier social norms continued.
Education, knowledge and science
In a village a pathshala may run in a temple hall, or a craftsman may teach apprentices. Learning does not always need a big building.
Decentralised education means many small local centres instead of a few big institutions: gurukulas, mathas, temple schools, viharas, pathshalas, madrasas.
Key idea 1: Institutions and skills — In gurukulas, mathas, temple schools, Buddhist viharas and Jain pallis, subjects such as Sanskrit, astronomy, law and medicine were taught. Villages had pathshalas; Kanchipuram and Sringeri were famous for philosophy and mathematics. Madrasas taught Arabic, Persian and Hindavi. Craft skills passed through apprenticeship. With Akbar’s encouragement Gujarati weavers moved to Varanasi, where zari work and brocade joined their heritage; Banarasi saris now have a GI tag. Pashmina shawls of Ladakh and Kashmir became a sign of nobility.
- Easy: Madhava’s tradition is called the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics.
- Medium: Two kinds of centres where learning continued: gurukulas and temple schools.
- Exam-type: Why did decentralised education survive turmoil? — It was small, local and supported by communities, temples and rulers, not dependent on one big institution.
In the figure: Despite political instability, science and skills kept growing.
Key idea 2: Nalanda and Vikramashila — Big universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila were destroyed in invasions in the late 12th century. This was a huge cultural loss, because scholars scattered and the learning ecosystem was disrupted. Still, learning went on through small local centres.
Key idea 3: Science and mathematics — A special distillation process to produce pure zinc was used for the first time in the world in India. In the 14th century Narayana Pandita wrote the ‘Ganitakaumudi’. Madhava of Kerala did pioneering work on series for trigonometric functions and for π; he and his followers are known as the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics. In 1500 Nilakantha Somayaji proposed a planetary model in which Mercury and Venus go round the Sun, decades before Copernicus (1543). Indian saltpetre was used for gunpowder and for cooling water. Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani medicine were widely practised.
What happened before? In the 7th century the Chinese monk Xuanzang came to study at the great monastery of Nalanda and recorded what he saw. In those days Nalanda drew students from far away.
What happened next? Around 1235 the Tibetan monk Dharmasvamin came to India. He found Nalanda damaged and mostly deserted, with only a few viharas in use. Yet the 90-year-old abbot Rahula Shribhadra was still teaching about 70 students, and Dharmasvamin studied under him.
Even after big universities were destroyed, learning continued through small local centres.
Thinking learning ended completely when Nalanda fell. The textbook says it continued through decentralised systems.
Remember the pair of Kerala names. Memory clue: Madhava = series (maths); Nilakantha = planetary model (astronomy) — both from Kerala.
Spot the difference
| Point | Big university | Decentralised centres |
|---|---|---|
| Example | Nalanda, Vikramashila | Gurukula, matha, pathshala, madrasa |
| In invasions | Destroyed | Mostly survived |
| Support | Large royal patronage | Community, temples, rulers |
Practice questions
- 1What did Nilakantha Somayaji propose?
- 2Pashmina is woven from the wool of which animal?
- 3Why do Banarasi saris have a GI tag?
- 4Name two centres where learning continued.
- 5Where did weavers move from and to under Akbar?
- 6What was the effect of the destruction of Nalanda and Vikramashila?
- 7Xuanzang visited Nalanda in the 7th century and Dharmasvamin in 1235; what difference did the latter find?
- 8Indian science advanced even in difficult times; give an example.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A model where Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun (1500).
- 2The soft wool of goats of Ladakh and Kashmir.
- 3To give weavers rights over their knowledge and limit who may use the name ‘Banarasi’.
- 4Gurukulas and temple schools (or mathas, pathshalas, madrasas).
- 5From Gujarat to Varanasi.
- 6Scholars scattered and the learning ecosystem was disrupted; a huge cultural loss.
- 7Dharmasvamin found Nalanda damaged and mostly deserted, but a 90-year-old teacher was still teaching about 70 students.
- 8E.g. zinc distillation, the Ganitakaumudi, Madhava’s work on infinite series.
Language, literature and exchange of ideas
At home you mix Marathi, Hindi and English words, don’t you? Languages borrow from one another, and such mixing can create a new language.
Urdu developed around Delhi; its grammar is like Hindavi (Hindi), while its vocabulary draws on Persian, Arabic and local languages.
Key idea 1: Regional languages and literature — Rich literature was composed in Sanskrit, Persian and regional languages. Saints and bhakti poets wrote in the language of ordinary people, which enriched regional languages. Amir Khusrau wrote in Persian as well as Hindavi. Rulers supported writers.
- Easy: Amir Khusrau wrote in both Persian and Hindavi.
- Medium: Urdu’s grammar is like Hindavi’s; many words are Persian-Arabic.
- Exam-type: What is the use of translation? — Ideas travel from one language to another and to other countries.
In the figure: Dara Shikoh’s translation carried Indian thought across the world.
Key idea 2: Urdu and the blending of languages — In Delhi’s markets, army camps and courts, people speaking different languages met. From this, Urdu developed (Hindavi-like grammar, Persian-Arabic words). Persian was the language of the court, and many Hindus learnt it too. Today’s languages still carry the large legacy of such exchange.
Key idea 3: Dara Shikoh and the Upanishads — Shah Jahan’s son Dara Shikoh had the Upanishads translated from Sanskrit into Persian with the help of scholars (1657). In 1801–02 they were translated from Persian into Latin, and the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer read them. This carried Indian thought to Europe.
What happened before? Shah Jahan’s eldest son Dara Shikoh was interested in both Hindu and Muslim spiritual traditions. For translating the Upanishads he brought in pandits from places like Kashi.
What happened next? In 1659, in the power struggle with Aurangzeb, Dara Shikoh was defeated and put to death. But his translation survived and later reached Europe through Latin.
Languages borrow from each other; translation lets ideas travel far.
Thinking Urdu came from outside. Urdu developed in India itself, around Delhi.
Dates in order: 1657 → 1801–02. Memory clue: Sanskrit → Persian → Latin → Schopenhauer (four stops).
Spot the difference
| Point | Urdu | Persian |
|---|---|---|
| Place | Developed around Delhi | Language of the court |
| Structure | Like Hindavi | A separate language |
| Words | Persian, Arabic, local | Persian |
Practice questions
- 1Who had the Upanishads translated into Persian?
- 2In which year was it made?
- 3In which region did Urdu develop?
- 4When was the Latin translation made?
- 5In which languages did Amir Khusrau write?
- 6Why did saints and bhakti poets write in regional languages?
- 7How did Dara Shikoh’s life end?
- 8Why can we say Urdu came out of mixing of languages?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Dara Shikoh.
- 21657.
- 3Around Delhi.
- 41801–02.
- 5Persian and Hindavi.
- 6To reach ordinary people; this enriched regional languages.
- 7He was defeated and put to death in 1659 in the power struggle with Aurangzeb.
- 8People of different languages met in markets, camps and courts; Hindavi grammar with Persian-Arabic words formed Urdu.
Architecture, food and clothing
Samosa and jalebi on your plate, pyjamas on your body? Many foods and clothes came from the meeting of different cultures.
Blending of cultures means different traditions meet, borrow from each other and create something new; it shows in buildings, food and clothing too.
Key idea 1: Architecture and gardens — New architecture combined Indian and Persian–Central Asian styles: domes, arches, minarets and fine ornament. In the Mughal period charbagh gardens and tomb designs developed, with water channels and a four-part layout.
- Easy: A charbagh is a four-part garden with water channels.
- Medium: Samosa and jalebi are linked to outside traditions.
- Exam-type: How do you spot a blend of cultures? — One object shows features of two traditions.
In the figure: Food, clothing and buildings bear witness to the meeting of cultures.
Key idea 2: Food — The samosa is linked to the Persian ‘sambusak’ and the jalebi to the Arabic ‘zalabiyeh’. Naan and many rich dishes became popular through the blending of Indian and outside traditions. Dishes from outside were adapted to Indian taste.
Key idea 3: Clothing — Garments like the angrakha, jama and pyjama took root from the blending of Indian and outside styles. Stitched clothes came into wider use. Clothes still varied by climate and region.
Everyday things show the blending of cultures.
Saying samosa/jalebi are fully Indian or fully foreign. Their history comes from blending.
Two pairs: samosa–sambusak, jalebi–zalabiyeh. Memory clue: ‘Sam’ matches ‘sam’ (samosa–sambusak); ‘j’ to ‘z’ (jalebi–zalabiyeh).
Spot the difference
| Area | Example | Blend |
|---|---|---|
| Architecture | Dome, arch, minaret | Indian + Persian–Central Asian |
| Garden | Charbagh | Water channels, four parts |
| Food | Samosa, jalebi, naan | Outside + Indian tastes |
| Clothing | Angrakha, jama, pyjama | Stitched garments |
Practice questions
- 1What is a charbagh?
- 2Which Persian dish is the samosa linked to?
- 3Which Arabic dish is the jalebi linked to?
- 4From which language does the word ‘pyjama’ come?
- 5Name two features of the new architecture.
- 6Why do food and clothing show blending?
- 7Why did stitched clothes spread more?
- 8Explain blending of cultures with a food example.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A four-part garden with water channels.
- 2Sambusak.
- 3Zalabiyeh.
- 4Persian (pai-jama).
- 5Domes and arches (or minarets, ornament).
- 6People of different cultures lived together and took from one another’s traditions.
- 7Through contact with outside styles; the textbook says such garments took root through blending.
- 8Samosa: linked to Persian sambusak, but with Indian spices and filling; a mix of two traditions.