Why do we need political parties?
Imagine 100 students each making a different demand to the principal. Nothing can be done until similar demands are grouped under a few class leaders. Parties do this for a whole country.
A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government. They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promote the collective good.
Key idea 1: What a party is made of — Parties reflect the fundamental political divisions in a society. A party is about a part of society, so it involves partisanship: taking one side. A party is known by which part it stands for, which policies it supports and whose interests it upholds. A political party has three components: the leaders, the active members and the followers. Parties are among the most visible institutions of a democracy, but visibility does not mean popularity; many people criticise them.
Key idea 2: Seven functions of parties — (1) Contest elections; in India top party leaders choose candidates, while in the USA members and supporters do. (2) Put forward policies and programmes; a party reduces a vast multitude of opinions into a few basic positions, and the voters choose among them. (3) Play a decisive role in making laws; most legislators follow the party leadership. (4) Form and run governments; parties recruit and train leaders and make them ministers. (5) Opposition: parties that lose voice different views and criticise the government. (6) Shape public opinion by raising issues and launching movements. (7) Provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes; it is easier to approach a local party leader than an officer.
Key idea 3: Why democracy cannot do without parties — Imagine an election in which every candidate is independent. No one could promise any major policy change, a government could be formed but its direction would be uncertain, and no one would be responsible for how the country is run; representatives would answer only for their locality. Even in non-party panchayat elections, villages usually split into factions that put up a “panel” of candidates, which is exactly what a party does. As societies grew large and complex, representative democracy needed an agency to gather opinions, bring representatives together, form a responsible government and support or restrain it. Parties do this, so they are a necessary condition for democracy.
- Easy: Which function is it when a party criticises the government’s wrong policy in the assembly? — Playing the role of opposition.
- Medium: A local party worker helps a villager apply for a welfare scheme. Which function? — Providing access to government machinery and schemes.
- Exam-type: Why is a vote for a party better than for 500 unconnected independents? — The party gives one clear programme and one group answerable for running the government.
In the figure: This is how a crowd of opinions becomes a government and an opposition.
Party = group that contests elections and holds power for collective good. Three parts: leaders, active members, followers. Seven functions; parties are a necessary condition for democracy.
Saying parties only divide people. They do reflect divisions, but they also turn many opinions into a few clear choices, and no large democracy runs without them.
Remember functions as a path: Contest → Policies → Laws → Govern → Oppose → Opinion → Access. Memory clue: C-P-L-G-O-O-A: Contest, Policies, Laws, Govern, Oppose, Opinion, Access.
Spot the difference
| Point | Ruling party | Opposition party |
|---|---|---|
| Role | Runs the government | Criticises and checks it |
| Source | Won the election | Lost the election |
Practice questions
- 1What is a political party?
- 2Name the three components of a political party.
- 3What is the role of the opposition?
- 4List any four functions of political parties.
- 5How are candidates chosen in India and in the USA?
- 6What is partisanship?
- 7Why can modern democracies not exist without political parties?
- 8Cause and result: how do parties make it possible for a government to follow a clear policy?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in government, agreeing on policies for the collective good.
- 2Leaders, active members and followers.
- 3To voice different views, criticise the government’s failures and mobilise opposition to wrong policies.
- 4Any four: contest elections; put forward policies; make laws; form and run governments; opposition; shape public opinion; give access to government schemes.
- 5India: top party leaders choose; USA: members and supporters choose.
- 6A tendency to take one side and an inability to take a balanced view.
- 7They gather opinions, form governments, give direction and make a government responsible; without them no one is accountable for national policy.
- 8A party reduces many opinions to a few basic positions, so the ruling party’s programme becomes the base of government policy.
How many parties? Party systems
In some cricket games only one captain’s team ever plays. In others two teams alternate winning; in a school tournament many teams compete. The number of competing sides changes the game.
A party system is the pattern of how many parties effectively compete for power. It can be a one-party, two-party or multiparty system.
Key idea 1: One-party, two-party and multiparty — In a one-party system only one party is allowed to control and run the government, as with the Communist Party in China; it is not a good democratic option because the electoral system does not allow free competition. In a two-party system power usually changes between two main parties; other parties may exist and win a few seats, but only two have a serious chance of a majority; the USA and the United Kingdom are examples. In a multiparty system several parties have a reasonable chance of power, on their own or in alliance; India has this. Any democratic system must allow at least two parties to compete and give them a fair chance to come to power.
Key idea 2: Alliances and coalition governments — In a multiparty system, when several parties join hands to contest elections and win power, it is called an alliance or a front. In the 2004 Lok Sabha elections India had three major alliances: the National Democratic Alliance, the United Progressive Alliance and the Left Front. After elections, government is often formed by various parties together in a coalition. A multiparty system can look messy and lead to political instability, but it lets a variety of interests and opinions get representation.
Key idea 3: Which system is best? — This is not a very good question, because a country cannot simply choose a party system. It evolves over a long time depending on the nature of society, its social and regional divisions, its political history and its electoral system. India has a multiparty system because the social and geographical diversity of such a large country is not easily absorbed by two or even three parties. No system is ideal for all countries and all situations. More than 750 parties are registered with the Election Commission, but usually only a handful are in the race to form the government.
- Easy: Which system: power alternates between two main parties, e.g. the USA? — Two-party system.
- Medium: Three parties fail to get a majority alone, so they rule together. What is this? — A coalition government.
- Exam-type: Why can India not simply copy the two-party system? — Its social and regional diversity cannot be absorbed by two parties.
In the figure: A system is democratic only if at least two parties can compete fairly.
One-party: not democratic. Two-party: USA, UK. Multiparty: India, with alliances and coalitions. Party system evolves from a country’s history and society; no system is ideal for all.
Thinking more parties on paper means a multiparty system. 750 are registered, but a system is judged by how many are effectively in the race.
Count the serious contenders, not the registered ones: 1 = one-party, 2 = two-party, 3 or more = multiparty. Memory clue: 1-2-many: China, USA/UK, India.
Spot the difference
| System | Contenders | Example |
|---|---|---|
| One-party | 1 | China |
| Two-party | 2 serious | USA, UK |
| Multiparty | 3 or more | India |
Practice questions
- 1Name the three kinds of party systems.
- 2What is an alliance?
- 3Which system does India have?
- 4Why is the one-party system not democratic?
- 5Name the three major alliances in 2004.
- 6What are the pros and cons of the multiparty system?
- 7Why is “which party system is best?” not a good question?
- 8Cause and result: why did India evolve a multiparty system?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1One-party, two-party and multiparty.
- 2Several parties joining hands to contest elections and win power.
- 3Multiparty system.
- 4Because free competition for power is not allowed; democracy needs at least two parties with a fair chance.
- 5National Democratic Alliance, United Progressive Alliance and Left Front.
- 6Pro: many interests get representation. Con: it can look messy and cause instability.
- 7A party system evolves over time from a country’s society, divisions, history and election system; it cannot be chosen quickly.
- 8India’s social and geographical diversity could not be absorbed by two or three parties, so many parties arose.
National and State parties; people’s participation
A national brand of notebook is sold in every state with the same design, while a local sweet shop is known in one town. Parties too are either country-wide or strong in one State.
The Election Commission gives a recognised status to large and established parties: a party is a State party or a national party depending on the share of votes and seats it wins. Recognised parties get a unique election symbol.
Key idea 1: Registration and recognition — Every party must register with the Election Commission, which treats all parties equally but offers special facilities to large, established parties. Only the official candidates of a recognised party can use its election symbol. According to the textbook, a party that gets at least six per cent of the total votes in a State Assembly election and wins at least two seats is recognised as a State party. A party that gets at least six per cent of the votes in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly elections in four States and wins at least four Lok Sabha seats is a national party.
Key idea 2: Federal parties and coalitions — Democracies with a federal system tend to have two kinds of parties: those present in only one unit, and those present in several or all units. Country-wide national parties have units in many States but by and large follow the same policies and strategy decided at the national level. The Election Commission calls the others State parties, commonly known as regional parties; they need not be regional in outlook, since some are all-India parties that succeeded only in some States, while others are conscious of their State identity. Until 2014 no single national party won a majority in the Lok Sabha on its own, so national parties formed alliances with State parties. Since 1996 nearly every State party has had a chance to be part of a national-level coalition government, which strengthened federalism and democracy.
Key idea 3: Do people take part in parties? — It is often said that parties are in crisis because they are unpopular. Large surveys over several decades show the belief is only partly true for India. Trust in political parties is low in South Asia, and parties are among the least trusted institutions all over the world. Yet participation is fairly high: the share of people who say they are party members is higher in India than in many advanced countries such as Canada, Japan, Spain and South Korea, and over the last three decades both the proportion of members and of people who feel “close to a party” has gone up steadily.
- Easy: A party gets 8% of votes in a State Assembly election and wins 3 seats. What status? — It meets the State-party test: at least 6% and at least 2 seats.
- Medium: Why does an independent candidate not get a party symbol? — Symbols are given to recognised parties for their official candidates.
- Exam-type: How did regional parties strengthen federalism? — National parties needed their support, so State parties joined coalition governments and States got a voice at the Centre.
In the figure: Textbook rule of thumb; the Election Commission’s detailed rules can differ.
All parties register with the Election Commission; recognised parties get a symbol. 6% votes + 2 seats = State party; 6% in LS (or 4 States) + 4 LS seats = national party. No single party won a Lok Sabha majority until 2014, so coalitions.
Confusing “regional” with “narrow-minded”. A State party may have a national-level organisation; “State party” only describes where it won enough votes and seats.
Two numbers decide the label: 6% of votes (same for both) and then the seats: 2 for State, 4 for National. Memory clue: 6-2-4: six per cent, two seats = State, four seats = National.
Spot the difference
| Point | National party | State party |
|---|---|---|
| Votes needed | 6% (LS, or Assembly in 4 States) | 6% in State Assembly |
| Seats needed | 4 Lok Sabha seats | 2 seats |
| Symbol | Unique symbol | Unique symbol |
Practice questions
- 1Which body registers and recognises parties?
- 2What is given to a recognised party for its candidates?
- 3Until which year did no single party win a Lok Sabha majority on its own?
- 4State the textbook rule to be recognised as a State party.
- 5State the textbook rule for a national party.
- 6Is trust in parties high in India? Is participation?
- 7How have State parties strengthened federalism since 1996?
- 8Cause and result: why did national parties form alliances with State parties?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The Election Commission of India.
- 2A unique election symbol.
- 32014.
- 4At least 6% of votes in a State Assembly election and at least 2 seats.
- 5At least 6% of votes in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly elections of 4 States, and at least 4 Lok Sabha seats.
- 6Trust is low; participation (membership and closeness to a party) is fairly high and rising.
- 7Nearly every State party joined a national coalition government, giving States a voice at the Centre.
- 8Because none could win a Lok Sabha majority alone, so they needed State parties’ support.
Challenges to parties and how to reform them
If a team captain never lets anyone else speak, picks only friends, takes money from a shop to pick its goods, and the two teams play the same game, the team stops being fair. Parties face the same four risks.
Defection means changing party allegiance from the party on which a person was elected to a different party.
Key idea 1: Four challenges — (1) Lack of internal democracy: power concentrates in one or a few leaders; parties do not keep membership registers, hold meetings or conduct regular internal elections, and personal loyalty to the leader becomes more important than principles. (2) Dynastic succession: with no open procedures, those at the top favour people close to them, even family members, so inexperienced people reach positions of power. (3) Money and muscle power: parties nominate candidates who can raise money, rich donors influence policy, and sometimes criminals who can win are supported. (4) No meaningful choice: ideological differences between parties have declined, so voters who want really different policies have no option; the same leaders also keep shifting between parties.
Key idea 2: Reforms tried in India — (1) The Constitution was amended so that an elected MLA or MP who changes party loses the seat in the legislature. This brought defection down but made dissent harder, since legislators must accept what the leaders decide. (2) The Supreme Court ordered that every candidate must file an affidavit giving details of property and pending criminal cases; this gives the public information, but there is no system to check if it is true. (3) The Election Commission made it compulsory for parties to hold organisational elections and file income tax returns; parties have started doing so, but it is sometimes a mere formality.
Key idea 3: More ideas and the citizen’s role — Suggested reforms include: a law to regulate the internal affairs of parties (membership registers, own constitution, an independent authority for disputes, open elections to top posts); a rule that parties give about one-third of tickets to women, with a quota for women in party decision-making bodies; and state funding of elections, in kind or in cash according to votes in the last election. Parties have not accepted these, and over-regulation can be counter-productive, since parties would find ways to cheat the law. Two other ways: people can put pressure through petitions, publicity and agitations, and those who want reform can join political parties, because bad politics is solved by more and better politics.
- Easy: Top posts in a party are always held by one family. Which challenge? — Dynastic succession.
- Medium: An MLA leaves the party that elected him to join another and loses his seat. Which reform? — The anti-defection amendment.
- Exam-type: Why is a candidate’s affidavit useful but not enough? — It gives the public information, but nobody checks whether it is true.
In the figure: These four are the main reasons for people’s dissatisfaction with parties.
What happened before the anti-defection law (1985)? After the 1967 elections Gaya Lal, a Haryana MLA, changed parties several times within about two weeks. People joked about “Aya Ram, Gaya Ram”, and the phrase came to mean a legislator who keeps changing sides. Such defections made governments in many States fall again and again in those years.
What happened after the anti-defection law (1985)? In 1985 the 52nd Amendment added the anti-defection law (the Tenth Schedule) to the Constitution, so a legislator who changes party loses the seat. The law was tightened in 2003. Defection fell, but it also made dissent harder, because members must follow the party leaders’ decision.
Four challenges: internal democracy, dynasty, money and muscle, no meaningful choice. Reforms: anti-defection law, affidavits, EC orders; ideas: law for parties, women’s tickets, state funding; and citizens’ pressure and participation.
Thinking that a strict law alone will fix parties. Over-regulation makes parties find ways to cheat the law; people’s pressure and participation are also needed.
Reform ladder: Law (anti-defection) → Information (affidavit) → Rules (EC orders) → People (pressure and joining). Memory clue: I-D-M-C: Internal democracy, Dynasty, Money, Choice.
Spot the difference
| Reform | What it does | Weakness |
|---|---|---|
| Anti-defection law | Seat lost on changing party | Makes dissent harder |
| Affidavit | Property and cases made public | Truth not checked |
| EC orders | Internal polls, tax returns | Can be mere formality |
Practice questions
- 1What is defection?
- 2What must every candidate file with the nomination now?
- 3Name any two challenges to political parties.
- 4Explain dynastic succession and why it is bad for democracy.
- 5What are the good and bad effects of the anti-defection law?
- 6Suggest two reforms for parties.
- 7How can citizens help to reform political parties?
- 8Cause and result: why does lack of internal democracy lead to personal loyalty becoming more important than principles?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Changing party allegiance from the party on which one was elected to another.
- 2An affidavit with details of property and pending criminal cases.
- 3Any two: lack of internal democracy; dynastic succession; money and muscle power; no meaningful choice.
- 4Top posts stay in one family; people without experience or support reach power and ordinary workers cannot rise.
- 5Good: defection falls. Bad: dissent becomes harder as members must obey leaders.
- 6Any two: law to regulate parties, one-third tickets to women, state funding of elections.
- 7By pressure through petitions, publicity and agitations, and by joining parties and taking part in politics.
- 8Without open elections and information, members cannot influence or question the leaders, so those who please the leader gain.