What is federalism?
A school has a principal for the whole school and a monitor for each class. The principal cannot sack a class monitor at will, and the monitor cannot change school rules. Each has work of its own.
Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units (provinces or States) of the country. Both levels enjoy their powers independently of each other.
Key idea 1: Unitary and federal — Usually a federation has two levels of government. The government for the entire country handles a few subjects of common national interest; the governments of provinces or States look after most of the day-to-day administration. Under a unitary system there is only one level, or the sub-units are subordinate to the Centre, which can pass orders to them. In a federation the Centre cannot order a State government to do something, and both governments are separately answerable to the people. Belgium changed from unitary to federal in 1993 when regional governments got constitutional powers that the Centre could no longer withdraw. Sri Lanka remains, for practical purposes, unitary. Only 25 of the world’s 193 countries are federations, yet they hold about 40 per cent of the world’s people.
Key idea 2: Key features of federalism — (1) Two or more tiers of government. (2) The tiers govern the same citizens but each has its own jurisdiction in legislation, taxation and administration. (3) The jurisdictions are written in the constitution, so each tier’s existence and authority is guaranteed. (4) Basic provisions cannot be changed by one level alone; both must consent. (5) Courts interpret the constitution and the highest court is the umpire in disputes between levels. (6) Sources of revenue are clearly specified, so each level is financially independent. (7) The dual aim is to protect the unity of the country and also to accommodate regional diversity. For this the levels must agree on rules and trust that each will keep its part.
Key idea 3: Two routes to a federation — “Coming together”: independent States join on their own to form a bigger unit, pooling sovereignty while keeping their identity, to increase security. The USA, Switzerland and Australia are examples; here all States usually have equal power and are strong against the Centre. “Holding together”: a large country decides to divide power between the national government and the States. India, Spain and Belgium are examples; here the Centre tends to be more powerful and the States often have unequal powers, with some given special powers.
- Easy: Can the Centre order a State government in a federation? — No; the State has powers of its own.
- Medium: Which route formed the USA, and which formed India? — USA: coming together; India: holding together.
- Exam-type: Why must the highest court act as an umpire in a federation? — Because disputes between levels of government must be settled fairly by someone independent of both.
In the figure: The big difference: in a federation the Centre cannot simply order the States.
Federal = power divided by the constitution between Centre and States, each independent. Two routes: coming together (USA, Switzerland, Australia) and holding together (India, Spain, Belgium).
Thinking that only big countries can be federal (Belgium is small) or that federalism means the States are completely independent of the Centre.
Federal test: Is there a written division of powers, and can the Centre NOT dismiss the States at will? If yes, it is federal. Memory clue: C-J-C-U: Constitution, Jurisdiction, Courts, Unity.
Spot the difference
| Point | Coming together | Holding together |
|---|---|---|
| How formed | Independent States join | Large country divides power |
| State strength | Equal, strong | Often unequal, Centre stronger |
| Examples | USA, Switzerland, Australia | India, Spain, Belgium |
Practice questions
- 1Define federalism.
- 2How many of the world’s countries are federal, out of 193?
- 3What is jurisdiction?
- 4Give any three features of federalism.
- 5How does a unitary system differ from a federal one?
- 6What changed in Belgium in 1993?
- 7Explain the two routes through which federations are formed, with examples.
- 8Cause and result: why must both levels agree before basic provisions are changed?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A system in which power is divided between a central authority and the constituent units, both independent in their powers.
- 2Only 25.
- 3The area over which someone has legal authority, by place or by subjects.
- 4Any three: two or more tiers; each tier has its own jurisdiction; powers in the constitution; consent of both for basic changes; courts as umpire; separate revenue; unity with diversity.
- 5Unitary: one level or subordinate sub-units; federal: levels with independent powers, separately answerable to the people.
- 6Regional governments got constitutional powers that no longer depended on the Centre, so Belgium became federal.
- 7Coming together: independent States join (USA, Switzerland, Australia). Holding together: a large country divides power (India, Spain, Belgium).
- 8So that neither level can change the shared arrangement alone, which protects each level’s guaranteed powers.
Federalism in the Indian Constitution
In a big joint family, the elders look after money and big decisions, each household looks after its own kitchen, and some matters are decided together. India’s Constitution divides work in a similar way.
The Constitution declares India a Union of States. It does not use the word “federation”, but all features of federalism apply. It has a three-fold division of legislative powers: Union List, State List and Concurrent List.
Key idea 1: Three lists and residuary subjects — Union List: subjects of national importance such as defence, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency, where one policy is needed across the country; only the Union Government makes laws on them. State List: subjects of State and local importance such as police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation; only State Governments make laws on them. Concurrent List: subjects of common interest such as education, forests, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession; both can make laws, and if the laws conflict, the Union law prevails. Residuary subjects (not in any list, or new ones like computer software) are left to the Union Government.
Key idea 2: Special status and Union Territories — Like most “holding together” federations, India does not give all States identical powers. Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram enjoy special powers under Article 371 because of their social and historical circumstances, for example to protect land rights and culture of indigenous peoples. Some areas such as Chandigarh, Lakshadweep and Delhi are too small to be States but could not merge into any State; these Union Territories do not have the powers of a State and the Centre has special powers in running them.
Key idea 3: Changing the arrangement; courts and money — The power-sharing between the Union and States is basic to the Constitution, so Parliament cannot change it alone. A change must first be passed by both Houses of Parliament with at least a two-thirds majority and then ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the States. In any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court decide. Both the Union and State Governments can raise resources by levying taxes to carry out their responsibilities.
- Easy: Which list has “defence”? — The Union List.
- Medium: A State and the Union both pass laws on a Concurrent List subject and they conflict. Which prevails? — The Union law.
- Exam-type: Why is a new technology subject, like drones, left to the Union? — It is a residuary subject; those not in any list go to the Union Government.
In the figure: Concurrent List (education, forests, marriage…) is shared; residuary subjects go to the Union.
Union List: Union only. State List: State only. Concurrent List: both, Union law prevails. Residuary: Union. Union Territories: run mostly by the Centre.
Thinking that because agriculture is a State subject, there should be no agriculture minister at the Centre. The Union can still run schemes and policies; only law-making on State List subjects is for States.
Remember the lists by who is “in charge”: Union = nation-wide matters, State = local matters, Concurrent = shared matters. Memory clue: D-F-B-C-C for the Union: Defence, Foreign affairs, Banking, Communications, Currency.
Spot the difference
| List | Who legislates | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Union List | Union only | defence, currency |
| State List | State only | police, agriculture |
| Concurrent List | Both; Union prevails | education, forests, marriage |
Practice questions
- 1Name the three lists of legislative powers.
- 2What are residuary subjects?
- 3What are Union Territories? Give one example.
- 4Give two subjects each from the Union List and the State List.
- 5Which Article gives special powers to some States, and why?
- 6Who decides disputes about the division of powers?
- 7Describe how the power-sharing arrangement between the Union and States can be changed.
- 8Cause and result: why do subjects like defence and currency belong to the Union List?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Union List, State List and Concurrent List.
- 2Subjects not in any list or that arose later, such as computer software; the Union Government legislates on them.
- 3Areas too small to be States and not merged in any State, e.g. Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, Delhi.
- 4Union: defence, currency. State: police, agriculture (any two each).
- 5Article 371, for States like Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram, because of their special social and historical circumstances.
- 6The High Courts and the Supreme Court.
- 7Both Houses of Parliament pass it by at least two-thirds majority; then the legislatures of at least half the States ratify it.
- 8They need one uniform policy across the whole country, so only the Union makes laws on them.
Federalism in practice: languages and Centre-State relations
In a class, if every group is allowed to speak and learn in its own language, nobody feels left out and the class stays together. Forcing one language on all would make some children drop out.
The test of Indian federalism is how it handles linguistic diversity and how the Centre and States actually share power in daily politics, not just what is written in the Constitution.
Key idea 1: Linguistic States — After 1950 the boundaries of many old States were changed so that people who speak the same language could live in the same State. Some States, such as Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand, were created not on language but to recognise differences of culture, ethnicity or geography. Many leaders feared that this would break the country up. Experience showed the opposite: it made the country more united and administration easier.
Key idea 2: Language policy — The Constitution did not give any one language the status of national language. Hindi was identified as the official language, but it is the mother tongue of only about four in ten Indians. So besides Hindi, 21 other languages are recognised as Scheduled Languages, and a candidate can take a central-government examination in any of them. Each State has its own official language, and most government work in the State is done in it. The use of English along with Hindi for official purposes was also allowed to continue, and Hindi was not forced on non-Hindi States. Compare Sri Lanka, where the Sinhala-only policy created a rift.
Key idea 3: Centre-State relations — For a long time the same party ruled at the Centre and in most States, so State governments hardly used their own rights. When different parties ruled, the Centre sometimes misused the Constitution to dismiss State governments of rival parties. Since 1990 regional political parties have risen in many States and coalition governments have become common at the Centre, so power-sharing has become more real and the Centre has to respect State governments. A landmark Supreme Court judgment in 1994 (S. R. Bommai case) also made it difficult to dismiss a State government arbitrarily.
- Easy: Is Hindi the national language of India? — No; the Constitution gave no language that status. Hindi is the official language.
- Medium: A State is created for hill people with a different culture, not a different language. Which example fits? — Uttarakhand (also Nagaland, Jharkhand).
- Exam-type: Why did coalition governments at the Centre help federalism? — The Centre needed regional parties’ support, so it had to respect State governments.
In the figure: One protest led to a new State and then to a country-wide redrawing of boundaries.
What happened before Andhra State (1953)? Potti Sriramulu, a follower of Gandhi, started a fast unto death in Madras in October 1952, demanding a separate State for Telugu speakers. He kept fasting for nearly two months and died on 15 December 1952. News of his death brought angry crowds into the streets in the Telugu-speaking districts.
What happened after Andhra State (1953)? Within days, on 19 December 1952, Prime Minister Nehru announced that a separate Andhra State would be formed. It came into being on 1 October 1953 with Kurnool as its capital. The demand then spread to other regions, so a States Reorganisation Commission was set up in 1953, and the States Reorganisation Act of 1956 redrew many State boundaries on language lines.
No national language; Hindi is the official language (mother tongue of about 40 per cent); 22 Scheduled Languages; English continues along with Hindi. Linguistic States made India stronger.
Saying “Hindi is our national language”, or thinking that language-based States weakened the country. The Constitution names no national language, and unity actually grew.
Flip the Sri Lanka lesson: accept many languages → people feel included → the country stays united. Memory clue: H-E-22: Hindi official, English too, 22 Scheduled Languages.
Spot the difference
| Point | India | Sri Lanka |
|---|---|---|
| Language policy | No national language; many recognised | Sinhala only (1956) |
| Effect | Unity grew | Rift and civil war |
Practice questions
- 1Does India have a national language?
- 2How many languages are Scheduled Languages in all?
- 3Name one State created on the basis of culture or geography, not language.
- 4What was Hindi given a status of, and what protects other languages?
- 5Why were many leaders afraid of linguistic States, and what happened?
- 6Which event of 1952 led to the formation of Andhra State?
- 7Describe how Centre-State relations changed after 1990.
- 8Compare India’s language policy with Sri Lanka’s and give the result of each.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1No; the Constitution gave no language that status. Hindi is the official language.
- 222 (Hindi and 21 others).
- 3Any one: Nagaland, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand.
- 4Official language; 21 other Scheduled Languages, State official languages and the continued use of English protect others.
- 5They feared the country would break up; in fact it became more united and administration easier.
- 6Potti Sriramulu’s fast and death (1952).
- 7Regional parties rose and coalition governments came at the Centre, so the Centre had to respect States; the 1994 Supreme Court judgment made arbitrary dismissal difficult.
- 8India recognises many languages and has no national language → unity grew; Sri Lanka imposed Sinhala only → rift and civil war.
Decentralisation and local government
A broken streetlight in your lane is best fixed by someone who lives nearby and sees it every night, not by a minister far away. Local people know local problems.
Decentralisation means taking power away from the Central and State governments and giving it to local government. Local problems are best settled at the local level, and people can take part directly in decisions.
Key idea 1: The 1992 Constitutional Amendment — Panchayats existed earlier, but the 1992 amendment gave local government a constitutional status and made it stronger. It is now mandatory to hold regular elections of local bodies. Seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes, and at least one-third of all seats are reserved for women. An independent State Election Commission conducts the elections, and State governments must share some powers and revenue with local bodies. Today India has about 36 lakh elected representatives in local bodies.
Key idea 2: Rural and urban local bodies — In villages, the Gram Panchayat (with a sarpanch and ward members) is the local government, and the Gram Sabha, made of all voters of the village, meets to supervise it. A few gram panchayats form a Panchayat Samiti (block or mandal); all the Panchayat Samitis of a district form the Zilla Parishad, whose chairperson is the head of the district body. In cities there are Municipalities, and in big cities Municipal Corporations, headed by an elected mayor in a corporation. Local bodies have their own elected councils.
Key idea 3: Example from Brazil and the difficulties — In Porto Alegre, a city in Brazil, people have taken part directly in preparing the city budget since 1989. Residents attend ward assemblies and decide how part of the money is spent. This shows how local government can bring people into real decisions. In India the system is still incomplete: gram sabhas are not held regularly, and many State governments have not handed over enough powers and money to local bodies.
- Easy: Who forms the Gram Sabha? — All the voters of the village.
- Medium: A village panchayat has 12 seats. What is the minimum number reserved for women? — One-third of 12 = 4 seats.
- Exam-type: Why is it good that the State Election Commission is independent? — Local elections are then run fairly, not at the State government’s convenience.
In the figure: Three tiers: village, block, district. Cities have Municipalities and Corporations.
What happened before the 73rd Amendment (1992)? On 2 October 1959, Gandhi’s birthday, Prime Minister Nehru inaugurated the panchayati raj system at Nagaur in Rajasthan, the first State to start it. It followed a 1957 committee led by Balwant Rai Mehta that suggested three tiers of village, block and district bodies. But panchayats had no constitutional guarantee, so in many places their elections were put off for years.
What happened after the 73rd Amendment (1992)? Parliament passed the 73rd Amendment for rural bodies and the 74th for urban bodies in 1992, and they came into force in 1993. Panchayats now had constitutional status, regular elections every five years, and reserved seats for women and weaker sections. The effect was that lakhs of women entered village and city councils for the first time.
1992 amendment: constitutional status, regular elections, one-third seats for women, State Election Commission. About 36 lakh elected representatives. Ladder: Gram Panchayat → Panchayat Samiti → Zilla Parishad.
Thinking that the Gram Sabha and the Gram Panchayat are the same. The Gram Panchayat is the elected council; the Gram Sabha is the meeting of all voters that supervises it.
Ladder from the ground up: Village → Block → District, and think “Gram → Samiti → Zilla”. Memory clue: 1/3 for women: “one in three seats is for she”.
Spot the difference
| Point | Rural | Urban |
|---|---|---|
| Bodies | Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Zilla Parishad | Municipality, Municipal Corporation |
| Head | Sarpanch / chairperson | Chairperson / Mayor |
| Amendment | 73rd (1992) | 74th (1992) |
Practice questions
- 1What is decentralisation?
- 2What fraction of local-body seats is reserved for women?
- 3Who heads a Municipal Corporation?
- 4List the three tiers of rural local government.
- 5Give any three changes made by the 1992 amendment.
- 6What is the participatory budget of Porto Alegre?
- 7Why is decentralisation good for democracy? Give two reasons.
- 8Cause and result: what difficulties still stop local government from working well?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Taking power from Central and State governments and giving it to local government.
- 2At least one-third.
- 3An elected mayor.
- 4Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Zilla Parishad.
- 5Any three: constitutional status; regular elections; reserved seats for SC, ST, OBC; one-third seats for women; State Election Commission; sharing of powers and revenue.
- 6Since 1989 residents of a Brazilian city decide part of the city budget in ward assemblies.
- 7Local people know local problems and can take part directly; it also trains people in democracy and settles issues faster.
- 8Gram sabhas not held regularly and States not giving enough powers and money, so local bodies cannot do their work well.