Roots
When you soak gram overnight, a tiny white tail comes out of every seed by morning. That tail goes down into the soil as the root. The first small thing that goes up becomes the shoot.
The radicle (मूलांकुर) grows into the root. The plumule (प्रांकुर) grows into the stem. Root hairs absorb water and minerals; the root cap protects the tip.
In the figure : In the figure of a sprouting seed the radicle (A) grows down into the root and the plumule (B) grows up into the shoot. C is the seed.
Rule 1: Radicle and plumule — The radicle grows downwards as the root; the plumule grows upwards as the stem.
- Easy : Radicle → root.
- Medium : Plumule → stem (shoot).
- Exam-type : In a germinating seed the root comes out first so that the plant can fix itself and absorb water.
In the figure : In the figure P is a tap root (one thick main root with side branches) in dicots. Q is fibrous roots (many roots of the same size) in monocots.
Rule 2: Types of roots — A tap root (dicots) has one thick main root with branches. Fibrous roots (monocots) are many roots of the same size.
- Easy : Carrot and gram have tap roots.
- Medium : Wheat and rice have fibrous roots.
- Exam-type : If you pull out grass, many thin roots come out together: fibrous roots.
In the figure : In the figure the root cap (A) protects the delicate tip. The root hairs (B) absorb water and minerals from the soil. C is the root.
Rule 3: Root cap and root hairs — The root cap covers and protects the delicate tip as it pushes through the soil. Root hairs absorb water and minerals.
- Easy : Root cap = helmet for the root tip.
- Medium : Root hairs increase the area to absorb water.
- Exam-type : A plant uprooted carelessly loses root hairs and wilts, as it cannot absorb water.
Radicle → root (down). Plumule → shoot (up). Dicot: tap root; monocot: fibrous roots.
Mixing up radicle and plumule. R for Radicle = Root.
Memory clue: Radicle = Root; Plumule = the Plant's top (shoot).
Spot the difference
| Point | Tap root | Fibrous roots |
|---|---|---|
| Found in | Dicots | Monocots |
| Looks like | One thick main root | Many roots of the same size |
| Example | Gram, carrot | Wheat, rice |
Practice questions
- 1Which part of the seed grows into the root?
- 2Which part grows into the stem?
- 3What is the job of root hairs?
- 4What is the use of the root cap?
- 5Which type of root do dicots have?
- 6Which type of root do monocots have?
- 7Classify as tap root or fibrous roots: carrot, rice, gram, wheat.
- 8A student says the root cap absorbs water. Correct him and name the correct part.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Radicle
- 2Plumule
- 3To absorb water and minerals.
- 4It protects the delicate root tip.
- 5Tap root
- 6Fibrous roots
- 7Tap root: carrot, gram. Fibrous: rice, wheat.
- 8The root cap protects the tip; root hairs absorb water.
Modified roots and the stem
Banana plants grown from a cut piece of a sugarcane stem send roots from the nodes. A banyan tree has "legs" coming down from branches. Not every root grows from the root part.
Adventitious roots (अपस्थानिक मुळे) grow from parts other than the root, like the stem. A node (पेर/गाठ) is the point of the stem from which leaves arise; an internode (आंतरपेर) is the part between nodes.
In the figure : In the figure A shows prop roots hanging from the branches of the banyan tree. B shows adventitious roots growing from the stem above the soil, as in maize and sugarcane.
Rule 1: Modified roots — Adventitious roots grow from the stem above the soil, as in maize and sugarcane. Modified roots include aerial roots, stilt roots, runners, breathing roots and the prop roots of banyan.
- Easy : Maize: roots from the stem above the soil.
- Medium : Banyan: prop roots hang from branches and support the tree.
- Exam-type : A heavy banyan spreads with many prop roots, so one tree can look like a small forest.
In the figure : In the figure of a stem the bud (A) is at the tip, the nodes (B) are where leaves arise and the internodes (C) lie between them. Here one leaf grows at each node on alternate sides.
Rule 2: Parts of the stem — A stem has nodes (leaves arise here), internodes and an apical bud at the tip.
- Easy : The apical bud is at the tip of the stem.
- Medium : Leaves arise at nodes, not at internodes.
- Exam-type : A stem with 5 nodes has 4 internodes between them.
Stem: bud on top, nodes give leaves, internodes in between.
Thinking roots always grow only from the root. Maize, sugarcane and banyan show roots from the stem or branches.
Memory clue: Node = Nest of leaves; Internode = In-between.
Spot the difference
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Node | Leaves arise here |
| Internode | Part between two nodes |
| Apical bud | Bud at the tip |
Practice questions
- 1What are adventitious roots?
- 2Give two plants with adventitious roots.
- 3Name the modified roots of the banyan.
- 4What is a node?
- 5What is an internode?
- 6Where is the apical bud?
- 7A stem has 7 nodes. How many internodes are between them?
- 8Riya says prop roots grow from the soil upward. Correct her.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Roots that grow from parts other than the root, like the stem.
- 2Maize and sugarcane.
- 3Prop roots
- 4The part of the stem from which leaves arise.
- 5The part of the stem between two nodes.
- 6At the tip of the stem.
- 77 − 1 = 6
- 8Prop roots hang down from the branches and support the tree.
The leaf
Look at a leaf of the peepal and a blade of grass. The peepal leaf has a net-like pattern; grass has parallel lines. A neem "leaf" is actually many small leaflets on one stalk. Leaves differ in shape and design.
A simple leaf has one blade; a compound leaf has a blade divided into leaflets. Venation (शिराविन्यास) is the pattern of veins: reticulate (net-like) or parallel.
In the figure : In the figure of a leaf the lamina (A) is the broad blade, the petiole (B) is the stalk and the mid-vein (C) runs through the middle.
Rule 1: Parts of a leaf — Lamina (blade), margin, apex, mid-vein, petiole, leaf base and stipules. Margins can be entire, dentate or lobed.
- Easy : Lamina = blade; petiole = stalk.
- Medium : Mid-vein runs through the middle of the lamina.
- Exam-type : The margin can be smooth (entire), toothed (dentate) or deeply cut (lobed).
In the figure : In the figure P is reticulate venation, a net of veins, as in the peepal. Q is parallel venation, as in maize.
Rule 2: Venation — Reticulate venation: veins form a net (peepal). Parallel venation: veins run side by side (maize).
- Easy : Peepal: reticulate.
- Medium : Maize and grass: parallel.
- Exam-type : Reticulate venation is common in dicots; parallel venation in monocots.
In the figure : In the figure P shows a simple leaf with one blade. Q shows a compound leaf with a blade divided into many leaflets on a common stalk.
Rule 3: Simple and compound leaves — A simple leaf has one blade (mango). A compound leaf has leaflets on a common stalk (neem). Leaves are arranged on the stem as alternate, opposite or whorled.
- Easy : Mango leaf: simple.
- Medium : Neem leaf: compound, with many leaflets.
- Exam-type : Alternate: one leaf per node; opposite: two leaves per node; whorled: more than two per node.
Lamina = blade; reticulate = net, parallel = lines; simple = one blade, compound = leaflets.
Counting each leaflet as a separate leaf. A compound leaf is one leaf with many leaflets.
Memory clue: Reticulate = Net (peepal); Parallel = Pencil lines (maize).
Spot the difference
| Type | Features | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Reticulate venation | Net of veins | Peepal |
| Parallel venation | Veins side by side | Maize |
| Simple / compound | One blade / many leaflets | Mango / neem |
Practice questions
- 1What is the lamina?
- 2What is the petiole?
- 3What is venation?
- 4Give one example each of reticulate and parallel venation.
- 5What is a compound leaf?
- 6Name the three types of leaf arrangement.
- 7Classify the venation of grass, peepal and rose leaf, if a rose leaf has a net of veins.
- 8Anil counted 12 leaflets on one neem twig and said 12 leaves. Correct him.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The broad blade of the leaf.
- 2The stalk of the leaf.
- 3The pattern of veins in a leaf.
- 4Peepal; maize.
- 5A leaf whose blade is divided into leaflets on a common stalk.
- 6Alternate, opposite and whorled.
- 7Grass: parallel; peepal: reticulate; rose: reticulate.
- 8They are leaflets of one compound leaf.
The flower
When a flower is offered to a deity, we usually see petals and a bit of stalk. Inside a flower are the small parts that make seeds and fruits. A flower is a plant's factory for new seeds.
Pollination (परागीभवन) is the falling of pollen on the stigma. Afterwards the ovules are fertilised.
In the figure : In the figure of a flower sepals (A), petals (B), stamens (C, male), a carpel (D, female) and the pedicel (E) are shown.
The flower
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appRule 1: Parts of a flower — Pedicel (stalk), receptacle, calyx (sepals), corolla (petals), androecium (stamens, male) and gynoecium (carpels, female).
- Easy : Calyx = sepals; corolla = petals.
- Medium : Androecium = male part (stamens); gynoecium = female part (carpels).
- Exam-type : Sepals protect the bud; petals attract insects.
In the figure : In the figure a stamen has an anther (A) and a filament (B). A carpel has a stigma (C), a style (D) and an ovary (E). Pollen falls on the stigma in pollination.
Rule 2: Stamen and carpel — A stamen = anther + filament (male). A carpel = stigma + style + ovary (female). In pollination, pollen falls on the stigma and the ovules are fertilised.
- Easy : Anther holds pollen.
- Medium : Stigma receives pollen.
- Exam-type : Ovary contains the ovules, which become seeds after fertilisation.
Male: stamen (anther + filament). Female: carpel (stigma + style + ovary).
Mixing up the male and female parts. Stamen is male; carpel is female.
Memory clue: Stamen – Sperm side (male); Carpel – Child side (ovary, female).
Spot the difference
| Part | Sex | Contains |
|---|---|---|
| Stamen | Male | Anther, filament |
| Carpel | Female | Stigma, style, ovary |
| Calyx / corolla | Protect / attract | Sepals / petals |
Practice questions
- 1What is the male part of a flower?
- 2What is the female part of a flower?
- 3Name the two parts of a stamen.
- 4Name the three parts of a carpel.
- 5What are sepals together called?
- 6What are petals together called?
- 7What is pollination?
- 8A flower has 5 sepals, 5 petals, 10 stamens and 1 carpel. How many male and how many female parts (stamens and carpels) does it have?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Stamen (androecium)
- 2Carpel (gynoecium)
- 3Anther and filament.
- 4Stigma, style and ovary.
- 5Calyx
- 6Corolla
- 7Falling of pollen on the stigma.
- 8Male: 10 stamens; female: 1 carpel.
Fruit and seeds
When you eat a mango you throw away the stone, and when you eat a groundnut you break the seed in two halves. Both the stone and the groundnut are seeds that could grow into plants.
After fertilisation the ovules become seeds and the ovary becomes the fruit. Seeds may be dicotyledonous (two halves) or monocotyledonous (one piece).
In the figure : In the figure after fertilisation the ovary (A) becomes the fruit (C) and the ovules (B) become the seeds (D).
Rule 1: Fruit and seed — Fertilised ovules become seeds; the ovary becomes the fruit. Mango has one seed; jackfruit has many seeds; in the cashew the seed is outside the fruit.
- Easy : Ovary → fruit.
- Medium : Ovules → seeds.
- Exam-type : Mango: one seed; jackfruit: many seeds; cashew: seed outside.
In the figure : In the figure P shows a dicotyledonous seed that splits into two halves, as in pea and groundnut. Q shows a monocotyledonous seed that does not split, as in wheat.
Rule 2: Dicot and monocot seeds — Dicot seeds split into two halves (pea, groundnut). Monocot seeds do not split (wheat, rice, jowar).
- Easy : Groundnut splits into two halves: dicot.
- Medium : Wheat does not split: monocot.
- Exam-type : Dicots usually have tap roots and reticulate veins; monocots usually have fibrous roots and parallel veins.
In the figure : In the figure P shows the mango that has one seed inside the fruit. Q shows the cashew in which the seed is outside the fruit.
Rule 3: Seeds in fruits — Fruits differ in the number and position of seeds: one seed (mango), many seeds (jackfruit) or the seed outside the fruit (cashew).
- Easy : A mango has one seed.
- Medium : A jackfruit has many seeds.
- Exam-type : In the cashew the seed (nut) is outside the fruit.
Ovary → fruit; ovules → seeds. Dicot seed splits; monocot does not.
Thinking the fruit and the seed are the same. The fruit comes from the ovary; the seed from the ovule.
Memory clue: Ovary → fruit (O to F), Ovule → seed (O to S).
Spot the difference
| Point | Dicot seed | Monocot seed |
|---|---|---|
| Splits into two halves | Yes | No |
| Examples | Pea, groundnut | Wheat, rice, jowar |
| Root type | Tap root | Fibrous roots |
Practice questions
- 1What does the ovary become after fertilisation?
- 2What do the ovules become?
- 3Which seeds split into two halves?
- 4Give two examples of monocot seeds.
- 5Which fruit has its seed outside?
- 6How many seeds does a mango have?
- 7Classify as dicot or monocot: pea, jowar, groundnut, wheat.
- 8Sunita says the fruit is formed from the ovule. Correct her.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The fruit
- 2Seeds
- 3Dicotyledonous seeds.
- 4Wheat and rice.
- 5Cashew
- 6One
- 7Dicot: pea, groundnut. Monocot: jowar, wheat.
- 8The fruit is formed from the ovary; the ovules become seeds.
Quick revision
- Dicot: tap root; monocot: fibrous root.
- Flower: calyx, corolla, androecium, gynoecium; pollination, fertilisation, seed and fruit.