Foreign policy and national interest
We decide thoughtfully with whom to be friends and how much to talk. A country also makes such fixed frameworks for dealing with other countries.
Foreign policy is the theoretical framework in which decisions about relations with other nations are taken. National interest means the interests that safeguard a country’s independence, sovereignty and economic development.
Key idea 1 : Importance of foreign policy — Efforts need to be made so that interdependence benefits every nation and not only a few. Each sovereign country decides itself with which nations to be friendly, which bloc to join and what position to take in international relations. The thoughtful framework for such decisions is foreign policy.
Key idea 2 : National interest — National interest means safeguarding the country’s independence and sovereignty, achieving economic development and increasing national power. Defence, i.e. protecting independence, sovereignty and integrity, is the highest national interest. Economic development comes next because an economically weak nation cannot maintain its independence.
Key idea 3 : Goal and means — National interest is considered the goal and foreign policy the means to achieve it. As time and conditions change, goals of nations change, so national interest also changes and these changes are reflected in foreign policy. Therefore foreign policy is always dynamic. Yet India’s policy rests on eternal values like international peace, human rights and security.
- Easy : Protecting the country’s borders. — Highest national interest (defence).
- Medium : Increasing trade with other countries. — National interest of economic development.
- Exam-type : Decision to stay non-aligned. — A foreign policy decision.
In the figure: Relation between national interest and foreign policy.
What happened before the Panchsheel agreement? From 1950 China was in control of Tibet. India–China talks in Delhi on trade and pilgrim travel through Tibet began in December 1953.
What happened after the Panchsheel agreement? On 29 April 1954 India and China signed an agreement that included the five principles of peaceful coexistence (Panchsheel). Similar ideas were reflected at the Bandung Conference in 1955, but in 1962 China attacked India.
Interest = goal; policy = means.
National interest changing does not mean foreign policy has no stable part; the eternal values stay.
Memory clue: Goal-means = interest-policy. Memory clue: “interest is the village to reach, policy is the road to it”.
Spot the difference
| Concept | Meaning | Role |
|---|---|---|
| National interest | Defence and economic development | Goal |
| Foreign policy | Framework for relations with other nations | Means |
| Defence | Protecting independence and sovereignty | Highest interest |
Practice questions
- 1What is foreign policy?
- 2What are included in national interest?
- 3Why is defence considered the highest national interest?
- 4Why is economic development an important national interest?
- 5Explain the relation between national interest and foreign policy.
- 6Why is foreign policy dynamic?
- 7Which are the eternal values of India’s foreign policy?
- 8What provisions do you think foreign policy should have for these eternal values?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The framework for taking decisions about relations with other nations.
- 2Protecting independence-sovereignty, economic development and increase in national power.
- 3Because without defence independence and sovereignty cannot last.
- 4Because a nation with a weak economy cannot maintain independence.
- 5Interest is the goal and foreign policy the means to achieve it.
- 6Because interest changes with time and conditions.
- 7International peace, human rights and security.
- 8Student’s view (e.g., peaceful settlement of disputes, respect for international law).
Factors influencing foreign policy
While choosing a picnic spot we look at distance, cost, friends and time. A country also looks at many factors while deciding foreign policy.
Factors influencing foreign policy are those that shape how a country will conduct relations with others — geographical location, political system, economy, political leadership and administrative machinery.
Key idea 1 : Geographical location and political system — The size, population, topography, coastline and natural resources of a nation must be considered in foreign policy. In a democracy parliament plays a major role in shaping foreign policy and opposition parties regulate it by raising questions. In a federal system the inclinations of constituent States must be considered because affairs in neighbouring nations affect them — e.g., events in Sri Lanka may affect Tamil Nadu and those in Bangladesh West Bengal.
Key idea 2 : Economy — In modern times a country’s economic condition affects foreign policy in two ways. One, policy is shaped by the need for economic relations with other countries, import-export and participation in world trade. Two, economic security has become as important as national security; countries with a strong economy are less dependent and can have an independent foreign policy.
Key idea 3 : Leadership and administration — The President, Prime Minister and the Foreign, Defence, Finance and Home Ministers have a big role in deciding policy; they maintain continuity and also improve it. For example, Pandit Nehru contributed the policy of non-alignment and Atal Bihari Vajpayee contributed a great deal to improving Sino-Indian relations. The Ministry of External Affairs, Foreign Secretary, embassies and diplomatic officers are the administrative factors; the final decisions are taken by the Prime Minister and the Minister for External Affairs but officials collect information and give advice. The National Security Advisor also does this task.
- Easy : Sea policy of a country with a long coastline. — Effect of geographical location.
- Medium : Debate on foreign policy in parliament. — Effect of the political system.
- Exam-type : Nehru’s non-alignment policy. — Effect of political leadership.
In the figure: Factors influencing foreign policy.
The textbook asks you to complete a list of contributions; Lal Bahadur Shastri’s example is given as the Tashkent Agreement. Find out the contributions of Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi and Vajpayee yourself. (check with the book)
Geo-polity-economy-leader-admin = five factors.
Foreign policy is not decided only by the foreign minister; many factors and officials take part.
Memory clue: Five factors. Memory clue: “geography, polity, economy, leader, administration”.
Spot the difference
| Factor | What is considered | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Geographical location | Size, coast, resources | Relations with neighbours |
| Economy | Trade, economic security | Import-export policy |
| Leadership | Prime Minister, ministers | Nehru’s non-alignment |
Practice questions
- 1State the five factors influencing foreign policy.
- 2How does geographical location affect foreign policy?
- 3What is the role of parliament in a democracy?
- 4Why must the inclinations of constituent States be considered?
- 5In which two ways does the economy affect foreign policy?
- 6Write the role of political leadership in foreign policy with examples.
- 7Which are the administrative factors in making foreign policy?
- 8If you were Foreign Secretary what topics would you suggest to the Prime Minister visiting China?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Geographical location, political system, economy, political leadership, administrative factors.
- 2Size, population, coast and resources must be considered.
- 3Shaping foreign policy; the opposition regulates it by raising questions.
- 4Because events in neighbouring countries affect constituent States.
- 5Need for economic relations and economic security.
- 6Nehru’s non-alignment; Vajpayee’s contribution to improving Sino-Indian relations.
- 7Ministry of External Affairs, Foreign Secretary, embassies and diplomatic officers.
- 8Trade, border, cultural exchange and peace (student’s view).
Objectives and the early phase (1947-1990)
After getting a new house one first has to decide its security and relations with neighbours. Independent India also did this at the beginning.
The non-aligned policy means keeping friendship with all without joining any military bloc. Article 51 of the Constitution gives the guiding framework of foreign policy.
Key idea 1 : Article 51 and objectives — According to Art. 51 of the Directive Principles India should give priority to international peace and security, maintain just and honourable relations between nations, respect international law and treaty obligations and settle disputes by arbitration. Other objectives: ensuring defence is not affected while keeping friendly relations with neighbours, not compromising on boundaries, protecting unity, protecting the interests of Indians abroad and establishing economic and trade relations.
Key idea 2 : First phase: Nehru and non-alignment — The period from independence to 1990 is considered the first phase. Nehru opposed colonialism, took an internationalist position and gave priority to global peace. India tried to understand events independently without pressure, took note of threats from China and Pakistan and insisted on self-reliance. In the Cold War, non-alignment let India get aid from both the superpowers; defence technology was imported from Soviet Russia, France and Germany.
Key idea 3 : Conflicts with neighbours — In this period India had to face conflicts with neighbouring countries. Wars between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir question happened in 1947-48 and 1965; in the third war in 1971 Pakistan broke apart and independent Bangladesh was created. In the 1970s India rose as a powerful regional power in South Asia and by the 1974 nuclear tests proved its nuclear capability.
- Easy : What is Art. 51 about? — The framework of foreign policy.
- Medium : Which policy did India adopt in the Cold War? — Non-alignment.
- Exam-type : In which year was Bangladesh created? — 1971.
In the figure: Important events of 1947-1990.
What happened before the Tashkent Declaration? In August-September 1965 there was an India-Pakistan war and after a UN call a ceasefire came on 23 September. Even afterwards the economic and military strain on both countries remained.
What happened after the Tashkent Declaration? Soviet Premier Kosygin mediated and after talks at Tashkent from 4 to 10 January 1966 Shastri and Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Declaration. The very next day, 11 January, Shastri died at Tashkent itself; the official cause given was a heart attack.
What happened before the creation of Bangladesh? In 1971 people from East Pakistan came to India in huge numbers; by May 1971 about 3 million and by November about 10 million refugees had taken shelter in India, which put a heavy economic strain on India.
What happened after the creation of Bangladesh? The war of 3 to 16 December 1971 lasted 13 days and on 16 December the Pakistani forces in East Pakistan surrendered at Dhaka; Bangladesh was born. In July 1972 Indira Gandhi and Bhutto signed the Simla Agreement.
47-48, 65, 71 wars; 74 nuclear tests.
Non-alignment did not make India stay away from the world; it could take help from both superpowers.
Memory clue: Art. 51 = peace; phase 1 = non-alignment. Memory clue: “fifty-one is the peace article”.
Spot the difference
| Year | Event | Result |
|---|---|---|
| 1965-66 | War and Tashkent Declaration | Soviet mediation |
| 1971-72 | Creation of Bangladesh and Simla Agreement | India a regional power |
| 1974 | Nuclear tests | Nuclear capability proved |
Practice questions
- 1What are the objectives of foreign policy according to Art. 51?
- 2State some more objectives of India’s foreign policy.
- 3What was Nehru’s contribution in the first phase?
- 4What benefit did India get from non-alignment?
- 5What happened before and after the Tashkent Declaration?
- 6What happened before and after the creation of Bangladesh?
- 7Write the challenges before India in the first phase.
- 8Make a chronological table of events from 1947 to 1990.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Priority to peace and security, just relations, respect for law and settling disputes by arbitration.
- 2No compromise on boundaries, protecting unity, interests of Indians abroad and economic-trade relations.
- 3Opposing colonialism, an internationalist stand and priority to global peace.
- 4Aid could be had from both superpowers.
- 5Before: the 1965 war and ceasefire; after: the 10 January 1966 Tashkent Declaration and Shastri’s death.
- 6Before: about 10 million refugees and war; after: the Dhaka surrender (16 Dec 1971) and the Simla Agreement.
- 7Conflict with Pakistan, the question of Bangladesh’s creation and conflict with China.
- 81947-48 war; 1965 war; 1971 Bangladesh; 1974 nuclear tests.
Regional cooperation, second phase and nuclear policy
If cooperation is kept with neighbours everyone benefits. India also increased cooperation with South Asian countries and later increased trade with the world.
SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) is an organisation established for cooperation among South Asian countries. Groups like BRICS and G-20 are forums that link countries in the post-Cold War world.
Key idea 1 : Changes after 1980 and SAARC — From 1980 some changes began to take place in foreign policy. SAARC was established to increase cooperation among South Asian countries. India initiated a dialogue to improve relations with China and also started interaction with America for cooperation in the field of security.
Key idea 2 : Second phase: 1991 onwards — In the post-Cold War period India’s foreign policy became more comprehensive and dynamic; along with political and military relations, economy, trade, education and technology got included. After 1991 India reduced government controls over the economy and adopted a free-market policy, so trade with neighbours and its share in world trade increased. Relations with Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Israel, Japan, China and the European Union became stronger and India began participating in organisations like G-20 and BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa).
Key idea 3 : Nuclear policy — Immediately after independence India undertook the nuclear energy programme; the Department of Atomic Energy and the Indian Atomic Energy Commission were established, the first Chairman of which was Dr Homi Bhabha. The main purpose was electricity generation but it also aimed at creating military capability. This led to the 1974 tests and in 1998 India built nuclear weapons and conducted tests. The Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty (NNPT) and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) benefit the big nuclear powers and put unfair restrictions on developing countries, so India has not signed either. India has accepted the role of a responsible nuclear power and supports efforts for disarmament.
- Easy : Which is the organisation for cooperation of South Asian countries? — SAARC.
- Medium : Which are the five BRICS countries? — Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa.
- Exam-type : First Chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission? — Dr Homi Bhabha.
In the figure: From SAARC to BRICS.
What happened before the founding of SAARC? In May 1980 (January 1980 according to some sources) Bangladesh President Ziaur Rahman put forward the idea of cooperation among South Asian countries. In the following years meetings of foreign secretaries and ministers took place.
What happened after the founding of SAARC? On 7-8 December 1985 the first summit was held at Dhaka and seven countries adopted the charter and established SAARC. In 1987 its secretariat started at Kathmandu and in 2007 Afghanistan became the eighth member.
As per the textbook India conducted its first nuclear tests in 1974 and built weapons and conducted tests in 1998; use both years as per the book. A practice question in the book has Pokharan as the site of the 1974 test. (check with the book)
85 SAARC; 91 open policy; 98 tests.
India has signed neither the NNPT nor the CTBT.
Memory clue: 85-91-98. Memory clue: “85 SAARC, 91 market, 98 bomb”.
Spot the difference
| Phase | First (1947-1990) | Second (1991 onwards) |
|---|---|---|
| Stress | Non-alignment, defence, self-reliance | Economy, trade, technology |
| Superpowers | Aid from both | Stronger ties with America |
| Organisations | SAARC (1985) | G-20, BRICS |
Practice questions
- 1What is SAARC?
- 2How did foreign policy become more comprehensive in the second phase?
- 3State the full form and members of BRICS.
- 4Why was India’s nuclear energy programme started?
- 5What happened before and after the founding of SAARC?
- 6Why has India not signed the NNPT and CTBT?
- 7Write the course of India’s nuclear policy in chronological order.
- 8Compare foreign policy in the first and second phases.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The organisation established for cooperation among South Asian countries.
- 2Economy, trade, education and technology got included along with political-military relations.
- 3Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa.
- 4Mainly for electricity generation and also to create military capability.
- 5Before: Ziaur Rahman’s proposal (1980); after: the charter and SAARC set up on 8 December 1985.
- 6Because they benefit big nuclear powers and put unfair restrictions on developing countries.
- 7Atomic Energy Commission → 1974 tests → 1998 weapons and tests.
- 8First: non-alignment, defence; second: economy, trade, G-20, BRICS.