Revolts before 1857 and the causes
Water in a pot heats slowly and then suddenly boils over. Injustice makes discontent pile up in people’s minds in the same way, and one day it bursts out.
The struggle of 1857 did not happen suddenly. Many local revolts took place earlier, and the discontent they left behind burst out in 1857 as a large uprising.
Key idea 1 : Revolts before 1857 — The Sanyasi-Fakir revolt in Bengal (from 1763); the sepoys’ revolt at Vellore in 1806; the Paika revolt in Odisha in 1817 (leader Bakshi Jagabandhu); the revolt at Barrackpore in 1824; in Maharashtra, Umaji Naik organised the Ramoshis and young men and fought, and was hanged in Pune in 1832. Forest-dependent tribes (Santhals, Gonds) and the Fond-Sawants of Konkan and Gadkaris of Kolhapur also resisted. These revolts were local and the British put them down, but the discontent did not die.
Key idea 2 : Economic, social and political causes — Economic: a new revenue system, forced tax collection, collapsed farming, unemployed craftsmen. Social: though the laws against sati and for widow remarriage were right, people felt them as interference in their way of life. Political: Dalhousie annexed Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi and removed the Nawab of Awadh for misrule. So the British no longer seemed trustworthy.
Key idea 3 : Soldiers’ discontent and the immediate cause — Indian soldiers could not rise above the rank of Subhedar, their pay and allowances were lower than those of British soldiers, and allowances were cut gradually. In 1856 Enfield rifles arrived. Their cartridges had to be bitten open, and news spread that they were greased with cow and pig fat. This hurt the religious feelings of both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
- Easy : Where and when was Umaji Naik hanged? — In Pune, in 1832.
- Medium : What was the immediate cause of 1857? — Being made to bite open Enfield cartridges rumoured to be greased with animal fat.
- Exam-type : What was the effect of Dalhousie’s policy? — Many states were annexed and rulers and people stopped trusting the British.
In the figure: The British put down small revolts one by one, but discontent kept growing and burst out on a large scale in 1857.
What happened before? On 20 November 1853 the ailing Maharaja Gangadhar Rao of Jhansi adopted a five-year-old boy from his relatives and named him Damodar Rao. The adoption papers and a will were handed to a British officer, Major Ellis, naming Rani Lakshmibai as the boy’s guardian. The Maharaja died the next day.
What happened next? Governor General Dalhousie refused to accept the adoption and took Jhansi under the doctrine of lapse. Damodar Rao got the Raja’s private property but not the kingdom or the title. In March 1854 the Rani was given a yearly pension of sixty thousand rupees and asked to leave the fort. Events like this raised the anger of the ruling families.
Causes = economic + social + political + soldiers’ discontent; spark = Enfield rifle cartridges.
It is wrong to say 1857 happened only because of cartridges. The cartridge was the spark; years of earlier causes had piled up like fuel.
Memory clue: Four causes: Economic, Social, Political, Soldiers — plus the spark: the cartridge.
Spot the difference
| Type of cause | Example | Effect on people |
|---|---|---|
| Economic | Forced tax, unemployed craftsmen | Farmers and craftsmen in debt |
| Social | Laws felt like interference in tradition | Distrust of the British |
| Political | Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi annexed | Rulers and subjects unhappy |
| Military | Low pay and rank, fat rumour | Outburst of sepoys |
Revolts before 1857 and the causes
In the app you can move this figure with your finger.
Open in the appPractice questions
- 1Name two local revolts before 1857.
- 2Whom did Umaji Naik organise?
- 3What was the immediate cause of 1857?
- 4How did the economic causes affect craftsmen?
- 5Name any two states annexed by the doctrine of lapse.
- 6Why were Indian soldiers discontented?
- 7How did the British take over Jhansi?
- 8What was the Rani of Jhansi told to do after Jhansi was annexed?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The Vellore revolt (1806), the Paika revolt in Odisha (1817), the Sanyasi-Fakir revolt — any two.
- 2The Ramoshis and local young men.
- 3The Enfield rifle cartridges had to be bitten open and a rumour said they had animal fat.
- 4Cheap machine-made goods ruined the handicraft industries and craftsmen became unemployed.
- 5Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi — any two.
- 6Low rank, low pay and allowances, and religious feelings hurt.
- 7They refused to accept the adoption and took it by the doctrine of lapse.
- 8She was given a yearly pension and asked to leave the fort.
Outbreak, spread and leaders
When one child in a class stands up against a punishment, others find courage and stand up too. The sepoys’ protest spread from one cantonment to the next in the same way.
The sepoys’ revolt that began at Barrackpore and Meerut in 1857 spread across North India under the name of the Mughal emperor at Delhi, and farmers, craftsmen and rulers also joined it.
Key idea 1 : Outbreak: Barrackpore and Meerut — On 29 March 1857 at the Barrackpore cantonment Mangal Pandey attacked a British officer; he was hanged and the news spread like wildfire. Then all the sepoys at Meerut revolted and marched towards Delhi. Thousands joined them on the way voluntarily. They handed the leadership to the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah and proclaimed him Emperor of India.
Key idea 2 : Spread — The capture of Delhi raised the sepoys’ confidence. The revolt spread through cantonments from Bihar to Rajputana and to Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Banaras, Bareilly and Jhansi; later it reached the south. In Maharashtra, Chhatrapati Pratapsingh of Satara and his officer Rango Bapuji, Chimasaheb of Kolhapur, Babasaheb Bhave of Nargund and Bhagoji Naik of Ahmednagar were in front. In Khandesh the Bhills revolted under Kajarsingh and Shankarshah led the revolt in the Satpura region.
Key idea 3 : Leadership — Bahadur Shah was unable to fight, so Nanasaheb Peshwa, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi and Tatya Tope took charge of the struggle. Maulavi Ahmadullah, Kunwar Singh, the Mughal commander Bakht Khan and Begum Hazrat Mahal led it in different regions. The revolt was fiercest in Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi and West Bihar. Hindu-Muslim unity was seen in this struggle.
- Easy : At which two places did the revolt begin? — Barrackpore and Meerut.
- Medium : Why did the Meerut sepoys choose Delhi? — The Mughal emperor was there and the revolt would gain acceptance in his name.
- Exam-type : Name four leaders and their regions. — Lakshmibai (Jhansi), Nanasaheb (Kanpur), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Lucknow), Kunwar Singh (Bihar).
In the figure: From one cantonment to another and then Delhi; that is how the revolt spread.
What happened before? On 26 February 1857 at Berhampore in Bengal the 19th regiment refused to accept the new ammunition (cartridges); the regiment was later disbanded. The news made the 34th regiment at Barrackpore restless too.
What happened next? On 29 March 1857 Mangal Pandey attacked an officer at Barrackpore. He was hanged on 8 April 1857. Jamadar Ishwari Prasad, who had refused to arrest him, was also hanged later in April, and the regiment was disbanded. Still, the news kept spreading to other cantonments.
What happened before? On 24 April 1857 at Meerut, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Cavalry refused to use the new cartridges. On 8 May a court-martial found them guilty and on 9 May they were shackled in front of the whole garrison; the sentence was ten years in prison.
What happened next? On the evening of 10 May the sepoys at Meerut rose in revolt. After riding forty miles through the night, on the morning of 11 May they crossed the Yamuna and reached the Red Fort in Delhi and asked Bahadur Shah to be their leader. The regiments inside Delhi joined them.
29 March = Barrackpore; 10 May = Meerut; 11 May = Delhi.
Bahadur Shah did not start the struggle himself. The sepoys started it and later handed the leadership to the emperor.
Memory clue: Remember “29-10-11”: 29 March Barrackpore, 10 May Meerut, 11 May Delhi.
Spot the difference
| Leader | Region | Role |
|---|---|---|
| Nanasaheb Peshwa, Tatya Tope | Kanpur and Central India | Took charge of the struggle |
| Rani Lakshmibai | Jhansi | Led at Jhansi |
| Begum Hazrat Mahal | Lucknow (Awadh) | Led the revolt in Awadh |
| Kunwar Singh | Bihar | Fought in West Bihar |
Practice questions
- 1In which cantonment was Mangal Pandey?
- 2Why did the Meerut sepoys go to Delhi?
- 3What title did the rebels give to Bahadur Shah?
- 4Name three leaders of the revolt in Maharashtra.
- 5Name four persons who led the revolt.
- 6What effect did the capture of Delhi have on the revolt?
- 7What happened after Mangal Pandey was hanged?
- 8What had happened at Meerut before 10 May 1857?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1In the Barrackpore cantonment (34th regiment).
- 2They wanted the revolt to gain acceptance in the name of the Mughal emperor, with Delhi as the centre.
- 3Emperor of India.
- 4Chhatrapati Pratapsingh, Rango Bapuji, Chimasaheb, Babasaheb Bhave, Bhagoji Naik — any three.
- 5Nanasaheb, Lakshmibai, Tatya Tope, Begum Hazrat Mahal, Kunwar Singh — any four.
- 6The sepoys’ confidence rose and the revolt spread across North India.
- 7The news spread like wildfire and the sepoys at Meerut revolted.
- 885 sepoys refused the cartridges, were court-martialled, shackled and sentenced to ten years in prison.
Failure and consequences
In a match, one team has a captain, a plan and enough equipment; the other has brave players but no plan. Courage alone, without a plan, loses the match.
The British put down the struggle of 1857 by the end of 1858; but its results were large: the Company’s rule ended and direct rule of the British Crown began.
Key idea 1 : Causes of failure — The struggle did not happen everywhere at the same time (Rajputana, Punjab and parts of Bengal stayed aloof); there was no commonly accepted central leader; most princes stayed loyal to the British; there was a lack of military strategy (Delhi was captured but could not be held); weapons were few. The British had money, a disciplined army, new weapons, experienced generals and control of transport and communication. The international situation also favoured them, as they had just won the Crimean War. Bahadur Shah was imprisoned at Rangoon; Nanasaheb and Begum Hazrat Mahal took shelter in Nepal, Tatya Tope fought for ten months but was caught through betrayal and hanged; Lakshmibai, Kunwar Singh and Ahmadullah gave their lives.
Key idea 2 : End of the Company’s rule — By the Government of India Act 1858 the British Parliament ended the Company’s rule and took the responsibility for governing India itself. The Governor General came to be called the Viceroy; Lord Canning became the last Governor General and the first Viceroy. A new post of Secretary of State was created in the British government to look after Indian affairs.
Key idea 3 : The Queen’s Proclamation and changes in the army — Queen Victoria’s Proclamation said: no discrimination among Indians on the basis of race, religion, caste or birthplace; government jobs on merit; no interference in religion; treaties made by the Company with princes would be honoured and no state would be annexed from now on. In the army the proportion of British soldiers was raised, British officers were placed at key places, artillery was kept only in British hands and units were divided by caste and religion; according to the textbook, the British adopted a policy of dividing people. Indians drew inspiration from the struggle to fight united.
- Easy : State one reason for the failure of 1857. — There was no commonly accepted central leader.
- Medium : How did the title of the Governor General change? — Viceroy.
- Exam-type : How did the Queen’s Proclamation benefit princes? — Treaties were honoured and annexation of states stopped.
In the figure: One struggle changed the structure of power and also gave Indians inspiration for freedom.
What happened before? In September 1857 the Company’s army recaptured Delhi. The main centre of the revolt was lost and Emperor Bahadur Shah was put on trial.
What happened next? On 2 August 1858 the British Parliament passed the Act ending Company rule (it came into force on 1 November 1858). On 1 November 1858 Lord Canning read the Queen’s Proclamation at a durbar in Allahabad. In October 1858 Bahadur Shah was sent to prison in Rangoon and he died there in 1862.
Act of 1858 = Company ended + Viceroy + Secretary of State; Proclamation = no discrimination + no more annexation.
It is not true that everything ended with the failure of 1857. It gave inspiration for national unity and freedom and strength for later movements.
Memory clue: Fifty-eight: Company out, Crown in; Proclamation = “no bias, no annexation”.
Spot the difference
| Point | Before 1858 | After 1858 |
|---|---|---|
| Power | East India Company | The British Crown |
| Head | Governor General | Viceroy |
| Control in England | Company directors and Board of Control | Secretary of State |
| Princely states | Annexed by lapse | Promise of no annexation |
Practice questions
- 1State three causes of the failure of 1857.
- 2What two changes did the Act of 1858 bring?
- 3Who was the first Viceroy?
- 4State two promises in the Queen’s Proclamation.
- 5What changes were made in the army, and why?
- 6What happened to Bahadur Shah afterwards?
- 7What followed after Delhi was recaptured?
- 8What is the importance of the struggle of 1857?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1No common leader, not everywhere, most princes aloof, lack of strategy — any three.
- 2The Company’s rule ended and the Governor General became the Viceroy; the post of Secretary of State was created.
- 3Lord Canning.
- 4No discrimination; jobs on merit; no interference in religion; treaties honoured, no annexation — any two.
- 5More British soldiers, British officers at key places, artillery in British hands, units divided by caste and religion — to prevent another revolt.
- 6He was sent to prison in Rangoon and died there in 1862.
- 7In 1858 the Company’s rule ended and the Crown’s rule began.
- 8Farmers, craftsmen, rulers and tribes fought together; it inspired national unity and freedom.