Village, kasba and pargana
Your village has a patil, a talathi, a carpenter, a blacksmith and market traders. The village had a similar structure then, and each had fixed duties and rights.
A village (mauja) is a settlement where people live. Many villages make a pargana; the main village of a pargana is the ‘kasba’. Village officers got a watan, hereditary land free of revenue.
Key idea 1 : Village (mauja) — The head of the village was the patil; he tried to bring maximum land under cultivation and settled disputes. The kulkarni kept the revenue accounts. Artisans like carpenters and blacksmiths served the village and farmers gave them a share of the produce, called ‘baluta’.
Key idea 2 : Kasba and peth — A kasba was like a big village, the headquarters of a pargana; e.g. Indapur and Wai. A peth (market) was usually near the kasba; the Shete and Mahajan were watandars of the peth and the Mahajan kept the accounts.
Key idea 3 : Pargana — Many villages made a pargana; the Pune pargana was big (about 290 villages) and Shirwal small (about 40). The Deshmukh was the chief of patils and the Deshpande the chief of kulkarnis in a pargana. They were the link between people and government; sometimes they misused their power.
- Easy : Who headed the village? — The patil.
- Medium : What is baluta? — The share of produce given by farmers for services.
- Exam-type : Whom did the Deshmukh head? — The patils of a pargana.
In the figure: Village, kasba and pargana and their officers.
On Jijabai’s order a peth named ‘Jijapur’ was founded at Pashan near Pune. In Aurangabad the peths Malpura, Khelpura, Paraspura and Vithapura were named after Maloji, Kheloji, Parasoji and Vithoji; and ‘Shivapur’ near Khed was named after Shivaji Maharaj. (information from the textbook)
Patil = village; Deshmukh = pargana; kulkarni = accounts; baluta = share for services.
Watan was not merely an honour; it was hereditary rights over land.
Memory clue: Patil-Kulkarni = village; Deshmukh-Deshpande = pargana.
Spot the difference
| Level | Head | Clerk |
|---|---|---|
| Village | Patil | Kulkarni |
| Pargana | Deshmukh | Deshpande |
| Peth | Shete | Mahajan |
Practice questions
- 1What is a mauja?
- 2What is a kasba? Give two examples.
- 3Write the work of the patil.
- 4What is baluta?
- 5Write the work of the Deshmukh and the Deshpande.
- 6What do the words ‘Budruk’ and ‘Khurd’ mean?
- 7What hardship did people face when watandars misused power?
- 8Which arrangement in your village today matches that time? Write.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A village where people live.
- 2Headquarters of a pargana; Indapur and Wai.
- 3Bringing land under cultivation and settling disputes.
- 4The share of produce artisans got from farmers for their services.
- 5Deshmukh — chief of patils; Deshpande — chief of kulkarnis.
- 6Original town is ‘Budruk’ and the new one ‘Khurd’.
- 7More money was taken from people or not remitted to government; people suffered harassment.
- 8E.g. today’s structure of patil-talathi and gram sabha.
Political situation in the early 17th century
If many bullies compete with each other in a lane, people of the lane live in constant fear. Maharashtra was in a similar state then.
In the early 17th century much of Maharashtra was under the Nizamshah of Ahmadnagar and the Adilshah of Bijapur. The Mughals had entered Khandesh, and the Konkan coast had Siddis and European traders.
Key idea 1 : Rivalry of powers — Along with the Nizamshahi and Adilshahi, the Mughals wanted to extend power in the south. Siddis who had come from Africa had settlements on the Konkan coast.
Key idea 2 : European traders — The Portuguese ruled at Goa and Vasai; the English, Dutch and French entered through trading companies by setting up factories. Their trade rivalry created instability and insecurity in Maharashtra. Because of their hats these Europeans were called ‘Topkar’.
Key idea 3 : Effect on people — Constant wars and changes of power made the common man insecure; farming and trade were both unstable.
- Easy : Who controlled much of Maharashtra? — The Nizamshahi and the Adilshahi.
- Medium : Which were two Portuguese places? — Goa and Vasai.
- Exam-type : Whom were called ‘Topkar’? — Hat-wearing Europeans.
In the figure: Four main powers in Maharashtra and their regions.
What happened before the fall of Ahmednagar (1600)? In 1595 Queen Chand Bibi defended Ahmednagar fort against the Mughal army and forced Prince Murad to make a treaty.
What happened after the fall of Ahmednagar (1600)? After the fall, the Abyssinian-born Malik Ambar rebuilt the Nizamshahi and fought the Mughals with ‘ganimi kava’ (guerrilla tactics). Shahaji Bhosale served under him.
Nizamshahi + Adilshahi + Mughals + Europeans = instability.
Foreigners were not from one country; Portuguese, English, Dutch and French were separate rivals.
Memory clue: N-A-M-E: four powers.
Spot the difference
| Power | Place | Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Nizamshahi | Ahmadnagar | Struggle with Mughals |
| Portuguese | Goa, Vasai | Established rule |
| English-Dutch-French | Factories | Trade rivalry |
Practice questions
- 1Which two powers were strong in Maharashtra in the early 17th century?
- 2Where did the Siddis come from?
- 3In what way did the European companies enter?
- 4Why did the name ‘Topkar’ arise?
- 5What was the aim of the Mughals?
- 6What effect did the rivalry have on common people?
- 7Why did European trade rivalry make Maharashtra insecure?
- 8Why might the need for an independent kingdom have arisen in this situation? Write your view.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar and the Adilshahi of Bijapur.
- 2From Africa.
- 3By forming trading companies and setting up factories.
- 4Because they wore a particular hat.
- 5To extend their power in the south.
- 6People suffered insecurity and instability.
- 7Because each wanted to capture the markets and they fought each other.
- 8Because people needed their own power that gave safety and justice.
The great famine
When rain fails, wells dry up, crops burn and grain becomes costly. For a farmer a famine is the greatest calamity.
A famine is a severe shortage of food and water because crops fail for lack of rain. Since farming depended on rain, famines had serious effects.
Key idea 1 : Effects of famine — Grain prices rose, cattle had no fodder, water was scarce and people had to leave villages. Agriculture was ruined, industries stopped and all money transactions came to a standstill.
Key idea 2 : The famine of 1630 — A great famine struck Maharashtra in 1630. It is described that people were ready to sell themselves for a piece of bhakri, but there was nobody to buy. Many families were destroyed and cattle died.
Key idea 3 : The challenge of recovery — People wandered far for a livelihood. Bringing the shattered life back to normal was a great challenge.
- Easy : What happened to grain prices in a famine? — They rose.
- Medium : In which year did the great famine strike Maharashtra? — 1630.
- Exam-type : Why did people leave villages in a famine? — Lack of food, water and fodder.
In the figure: Effects from no rain to leaving villages.
Sant Tukaram of Dehu lost his family in this period of famine. According to many sources his first wife and a son died of starvation in the famine of about 1630 (sources give the year slightly differently, 1629-32). After this grief his mind turned from household life to devotion and he composed abhangs.
Famine = no rain → no crop → costly grain → leaving villages.
Famine does not trouble only farmers; industries, trade and the whole society get hit.
Memory clue: 1630 = famine; no buyer even for a bhakri.
Spot the difference
| Field | Effect | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Farming | Ruined | No crop |
| Livestock | No fodder | Cattle die |
| Society | Migration | Leaving villages |
Practice questions
- 1What is a famine?
- 2What is the main cause of a famine?
- 3Describe the famine of 1630 in brief.
- 4Why did industries stop in a famine?
- 5Where did people go during a famine?
- 6What effect did the famine have on Sant Tukaram?
- 7Write the disadvantages of farming depending on rain.
- 8What measures can be taken today to face famine? Write.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Severe shortage of food and water because crops fail for lack of rain.
- 2Failure of rain.
- 3People were ready to sell themselves for a bhakri; families destroyed, cattle died.
- 4Because raw material and demand vanish and transactions stop.
- 5To faraway regions in search of a livelihood.
- 6He lost his wife and a son; he turned to devotion.
- 7If rain fails the crop is lost, grain becomes costly and water is short.
- 8Water conservation, rainwater harvesting and grain storage.
Varkari movement and the sants
On Ashadhi Ekadashi lakhs of people walk together in the Pandharpur wari and forget all divisions. This tradition was shaped by the sants.
The Varkari movement is a sant tradition devoted to Vitthal of Pandharpur. It began with Sant Dnyaneshwar and Namdeo and continued to Tukaram.
Key idea 1 : Sants from all strata — Sants from all strata took part: Chokhamela, Goroba, Sena, Sawata, Narhari, Shaikh Muhammad, and also Soyrabai, Nirmala, Muktabai, Janabai, Kanhopatra and Bahinabai. Equality was taught at Pandharpur on the Chandrabhaga through bhajans, keertans and the shared meal (kala).
Key idea 2 : Namdeo and Dnyaneshwar — Namdeo was a great keertankar and organiser; he went up to Punjab and his compositions are included in the Sikh ‘Guru Granth Sahib’. Dnyaneshwar wrote ‘Dnyaneshwari’ (Bhavarth-deepika) on the Bhagavad Gita and ‘Amrutanubhav’ and gave the Varkari movement the dignity of a religion. Nivruttinath, Sopandev and Muktabai were his siblings.
Key idea 3 : Eknath and Tukaram — Eknath wrote ‘Bhavarth Ramayan’, composed abhangs, gavalans and bharuds, and firmly said Marathi is inferior to no language. Tukaram of Dehu composed simple, moving abhangs.
- Easy : Who is the deity of Varkaris? — Vitthal of Pandharpur.
- Medium : What is the subject of Dnyaneshwari? — The meaning of the Gita in Marathi.
- Exam-type : Which work did Eknath write? — Bhavarth Ramayan.
In the figure: The Varkari sant tradition from Dnyaneshwar to Tukaram.
Namdeo’s compositions are included in the Sikhs’ ‘Guru Granth Sahib’ in Punjab. So the abhangs of a Maharashtra sant have been sung in Punjab for hundreds of years. (information from the textbook)
Varkari = Vitthal devotion; Dnyaneshwari = Marathi form of the Gita; Tukaram = Dehu.
Sants did not belong to one caste; all castes and women were in the sant tradition.
Memory clue: Dnya-Na-E-Tu: four sants in order.
Spot the difference
| Sant | Work | Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Dnyaneshwar | Dnyaneshwari, Amrutanubhav | Marathi exposition of Gita |
| Eknath | Bhavarth Ramayan, bharuds | Pride in Marathi |
| Tukaram | Abhangs | Simple language |
Practice questions
- 1Which is the centre of the Varkari movement?
- 2Write the names of four Varkari sants.
- 3Which works did Dnyaneshwar write?
- 4Where are Namdeo’s compositions included?
- 5What did Eknath say about Marathi?
- 6What equality is taught through the wari?
- 7Write the names of women sants and state their importance.
- 8How will the Varkari sants’ teaching be useful in society today? Write.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Pandharpur.
- 2Dnyaneshwar, Namdeo, Eknath, Tukaram.
- 3Dnyaneshwari (Bhavarth-deepika) and Amrutanubhav.
- 4In the Sikhs’ Guru Granth Sahib.
- 5Marathi is inferior to no other language.
- 6All castes, men and women take part together in bhajan, keertan and kala.
- 7Muktabai, Janabai, Bahinabai — they brought women’s voice into the sant tradition.
- 8Equality, mutual love and simple living will keep society together.