Village life and social conditions
In our school everyone has a separate duty: someone keeps the class, someone the accounts. In the village of those days everyone too had a fixed task.
Balutedars were craftsmen who gave fixed services to villagers and were paid in grain or goods. A village had twelve balutedars.
Key idea 1 : Patil and Kulkarni — At village level agriculture and occupations based on it were the main source of production. The Patil was responsible for protecting the village and the Kulkarni handled the revenue. The Patil received land as inam for his work and also a part of the village revenue.
Key idea 2 : Balutedars and division of work — Balutedars were paid in kind — in objects or foodgrains — for the work they did for villagers. Twelve balutedars like the blacksmith, carpenter, potter and goldsmith worked for the village. Village occupations were divided into kali and pandhari; peasants worked in the kali, that is, in the fields, and others in the pandhari, within the village.
Key idea 3 : Harmony and standard of living — Conducting village affairs with mutual understanding was considered important; the joint family system was common. Most people lived in villages and villages were mostly self-sufficient; only salt had to be brought from outside. Farmers’ needs were limited; they grew jowar, bajra, wheat, nachani, maize and rice. The daily diet had bhakari, onion, chutney and a side dish. The barter system was used in daily transactions. Village houses were simple, of mud and bricks; one- or two-storey wadas were seen in cities.
- Easy : Who was responsible for protecting the village? — The Patil.
- Medium : Who kept the revenue accounts? — The Kulkarni.
- Exam-type : How many balutedars? — Twelve.
In the figure: Main persons and division of work in a village.
As per the textbook villagers gave the twelve balutedars grain for their services; this is called ‘balute’.
Patil = protection; Kulkarni = accounts; 12 balutedars; kali = field.
Balutedars got grain or goods, not money; it was a barter system.
Memory clue: Patil guard, Kulkarni clerk.
Spot the difference
| Person | Work | Payment |
|---|---|---|
| Patil | Protect village | Inam land + part of revenue |
| Kulkarni | Revenue accounts | Pay/inam |
| Balutedar | Services | Grain/goods |
Practice questions
- 1What were the duties of the Patil?
- 2What did the Kulkarni do?
- 3How were balutedars paid?
- 4What are kali and pandhari?
- 5How were villages self-sufficient?
- 6What was the farmers’ daily diet?
- 7What is the barter system?
- 8List five occupations in your village.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Protecting the village.
- 2Kept the revenue accounts.
- 3In grain or goods.
- 4Work in fields is kali; work in the village is pandhari.
- 5Only salt had to be brought from outside.
- 6Bhakari, onion, chutney.
- 7Exchanging goods instead of money.
- 8E.g. farming, carpentry, pottery, shop, teaching.
Standard of living, customs and festivals
Even today festivals bring joy to every house. In Maratheshahi too festivals and fairs were an important part of people’s lives.
Seemollanghan is crossing the village or state boundary on Dasara; the Marathas started campaigns after Dasara.
Key idea 1 : Dress and food — The rich people’s diet mainly included rice, dal, chapatis, vegetables, salads, milk and curd products. Men wore dhoti, kurta, angarakha and mundase; women wore nine-yard sarees and blouses.
Key idea 2 : Festivals and fairs — People celebrated Gudhi Padwa, Nagpanchami, Bail-pola, Dasara, Diwali, Makarsankrant, Holi, Eid and other festivals. In the Peshwa period Ganeshotsav was celebrated in many homes; since the Peshwa himself was a devotee of Ganesha it gained importance. Dasara is considered one of the three and a half auspicious occasions; on that day there were weapon-worship, seemollanghan and distribution of apta leaves. During Diwali Balipratipada and Bhau-beej had special importance. In most villages fairs were held; wrestling bouts were common in the fairs. Tamasha was a popular form of entertainment.
Key idea 3 : Customs, beliefs and sports — Child marriages were prevalent; having many wives was acceptable; there are a few examples of widow marriages. Auspicious moments were sought for every little thing and even to start battles. People believed in dreams and omens; there was a lack of scientific attitude. Wrestling and martial arts were popular; mallakhamb, dandpatta, lathi and bothati were practised. Hututu, kho-kho and atyapatya were popular outdoor games and chess, ganjifa and dice were popular indoor games.
- Easy : Men’s dress? — Dhoti, kurta, angarakha, mundase.
- Medium : How long did Ganeshotsav last? — Bhadrapad Chaturthi to Anant Chaturdashi.
- Exam-type : Outdoor games? — Hututu, kho-kho, atyapatya.
In the figure: Festivals and fairs through the year.
As per the textbook the Marathas started campaigns after Dasara; weapon-worship and seemollanghan took place then.
Dasara = weapon-worship + seemollanghan; fair = wrestling; Ganeshotsav = Peshwa period.
Not all Maratheshahi customs suit today; education and science changed them.
Memory clue: Dasara = cross the border, start campaign.
Spot the difference
| Game | Type | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Outdoor | Team | Hututu, kho-kho |
| Indoor | Mind | Chess, ganjifa |
| Physical | Martial | Mallakhamb, dandpatta |
Practice questions
- 1Which were the main festivals of Maratheshahi?
- 2Why did Ganeshotsav gain importance in the Peshwa period?
- 3Which customs were followed on Dasara?
- 4What took place in fairs?
- 5Which customs are not right today?
- 6List the games of Maratheshahi.
- 7What did the rich people’s diet include?
- 8Write ten lines on a festival of your area.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Gudhi Padwa, Nagpanchami, Bail-pola, Dasara, Diwali, Sankrant, Holi, Eid.
- 2Because the Peshwa was himself a devotee of Ganesha.
- 3Weapon-worship, seemollanghan, distributing apta leaves.
- 4Wrestling bouts, tamasha, entertainment.
- 5Customs like child marriage and superstitions.
- 6Wrestling, mallakhamb, hututu, kho-kho, chess, ganjifa.
- 7Rice, dal, chapatis, vegetables, milk, curd.
- 8E.g. Ganeshotsav or Diwali.
Education, travel, religion and women
Today we travel by bus and train; earlier it was bullock cart and on foot. The education system of that time was also different from today.
Modi is an earlier script for writing Marathi; most transactions were written in Modi.
Key idea 1 : Education and travel — Pathshalas and madrasas were the centres of education. Reading, writing and arithmetic were taught at home. The Modi script was used in most transactions. Travel was by roads, through ghats and across bridges on rivers. Cloth, foodgrains and groceries were transported by loading them on bullocks. Small boats were used in rivers. Messengers and camel riders carried letters to and fro.
Key idea 2 : Religion and conduct — Two major religions seen in this period were Hindu and Muslim. Shivaji Maharaj had a liberal religious policy; the general understanding was that everyone should follow their own religion and not impose it on others. The government gave grants to pathshalas, temples, madrasas and mosques. Followers of both religions took part in each other’s festivals. The Varkari, Mahanubhav, Datta, Nath and Ramdasi panths were prevalent.
Key idea 3 : Women’s life — Women’s life in those days was full of hardships. Their world was confined to the house first of their father and then their husband; their education was neglected. A few exceptional women made progress in literacy, administration and battle skills; they include Veermata Jijabai, Maharani Yesubai, Maharani Tarabai, Umabai Dabhade, Gopikabai and Punyashloka Ahilyabai. Customs like child marriage, unequal marriage, widowhood, keshwapan, sati and polygamy imposed harsh restrictions on the way women lived.
- Easy : Centres of education? — Pathshalas and madrasas.
- Medium : Script of transactions? — Modi.
- Exam-type : Who carried letters? — Messengers and camel riders.
In the figure: Education, religion and women.
As per the textbook the government gave grants to pathshalas, temples, madrasas and mosques; followers of both religions took part in each other’s festivals.
Pathshala-madrasa = education; Modi = script; liberal policy.
Not all women were illiterate; some exceptional women excelled in administration and war.
Memory clue: Pathshala + madrasa; Modi; liberal policy.
Spot the difference
| Point | Then | Today |
|---|---|---|
| Travel | Bullock cart, boat | Bus, train, aeroplane |
| Script | Modi | Devanagari |
| Messages | Messengers | Mobile, internet |
Practice questions
- 1What was taught in pathshalas and madrasas?
- 2What is the Modi script?
- 3How was travel done in those days?
- 4What was Shivaji Maharaj’s religious policy?
- 5Which panths were prevalent?
- 6What restrictions were on women’s lives?
- 7Write the names of capable women.
- 8Collect information about one capable woman of today.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Reading, writing and arithmetic.
- 2The earlier script for writing Marathi.
- 3By roads, ghats, bridges and bullock-back transport.
- 4Liberal; everyone follows their own religion without imposing.
- 5Varkari, Mahanubhav, Datta, Nath, Ramdasi.
- 6Neglect of education and restrictions of customs.
- 7Jijabai, Yesubai, Tarabai, Umabai, Gopikabai, Ahilyabai.
- 8E.g. a sportsperson, scientist or doctor.
Art and architecture of Maratheshahi
Seeing an old temple or ghat in our village shows the skill of craftsmen of that time. Maratheshahi buildings still bear witness to such skill.
Maratheshahi is broadly the period from 1630 to 1810. A wada is a large old residence built of wood, brick and stone; Hemadpanti is a temple style built by fitting stones without mortar.
Key idea 1 : Wadas and ghats — While setting up a village the usual pattern was roads cutting one another at right angles, stone construction along the sides and extensive ghats along the river bank. In the Peshwa period drinking-water supply systems like those at Ahmednagar and Bijapur were built. Shaniwarwada and Vishrambagwada in Pune, Sarkarwada in Nashik, Raghunathrao’s wada at Kopargaon and the wadas of the Satara Chhatrapati are symbols of the medieval wada culture. Baked and unbaked bricks, wooden columns, beams, dressed stones, arches, lime, round roof tiles, mud and bamboo were used to build wadas. Stone ghats on a river or at a confluence are characteristic of Maratheshahi; the ghat at Toke on the Pravara confluence is the most remarkable.
Key idea 2 : Temples and sculptures — Temples of this period are built in the Hemadpanti style of the Yadav period. The shikhar of the Ambabai temple at Kolhapur, the temples on the Jotiba hill, the Shambhu Mahadev temple at Shikhar-Shinganapur and the Ghrishneshwar temple at Verul are excellent specimens of sculpture. The Bhavanidevi temple on Pratapgad and the Saptkoteshwar temple at Goa were built by Shivaji Maharaj. Other temples of the Peshwa period include the Kalaram temple at Nashik, the Shiva temple at Trimbakeshwar and the Mohiniraj temple at Newase. The Peshwas specially commissioned metal idols of Parvati and Ganapati for the Parvati temple; wooden sculptures were also seen.
Key idea 3 : Painting, literature and drama — The paintings on the walls of Shaniwarwada are important ones of the Peshwa period. Ragho, Tanaji, Anuprao, Shivram and Mankoji were important painters of this period; Gangaram Tambat was famous at the time of Sawai Madhavrao Peshwa. The themes of paintings were Dashavatara, Ganapati, Shankar, Ramayana, Mahabharata and festivals; illustrations in pothis, miniatures and portraits were also painted. Literature includes compositions of the Sants, mythological narratives, teeka literature, owi, abhanga, narrative poems, biographies, aaratis, powadas, bakhars and historical letters. At Tanjavur in the South Marathi plays emerged near the end of the seventeenth century; Sarfoji Raje encouraged this art. Songs, music and dance were prominent parts of these plays.
- Easy : Famous wada of the Peshwa period? — Shaniwarwada, Pune.
- Medium : Famous ghat where? — Toke, Pravara confluence.
- Exam-type : Where did Marathi plays emerge? — Tanjavur.
In the figure: Wadas, ghats, temples, paintings and literature.
As per the textbook the Mastani Talav at Diveghat, Hadapsar near Pune is a notable example of the Peshwa-period water system.
Wada = wood + brick + stone; ghat = Toke; temple = Hemadpanti.
Not all temples are Hemadpanti; some Maratheshahi temples were of a different style.
Memory clue: Wada-ghat-temple-painting = 4 legacies.
Spot the difference
| Art | Example | Place |
|---|---|---|
| Wada | Shaniwarwada | Pune |
| Ghat | Toke ghat | Pravara confluence |
| Temple | Kalaram temple | Nashik |
Practice questions
- 1Which period is Maratheshahi?
- 2Which materials were used in building wadas?
- 3What is the feature of ghats?
- 4What is the Hemadpanti temple style?
- 5Name two temples built by Shivaji Maharaj.
- 6Name painters of the Peshwa period.
- 7Write about the plays of Tanjavur.
- 8Collect information about a historic building in your area.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1About 1630 to 1810.
- 2Baked and unbaked bricks, wood, stone, lime, tiles.
- 3Stone ghats on river banks or confluences.
- 4The Yadav-period style of fitting stones without mortar.
- 5Bhavani temple at Pratapgad and Saptkoteshwar temple in Goa.
- 6Ragho, Tanaji, Anuprao, Shivram, Mankoji, Gangaram Tambat.
- 7Emerged near the end of the 17th century; Sarfoji Raje encouraged them.
- 8E.g. a nearby fort, temple or wada.