Reconstructing history and types of sources
An old photo in grandmother’s cupboard, an old utensil and grandfather’s stories tell the history of your home. The history of a country is also unfolded from such evidence.
Sources of history are the objects, writings and memories that give evidence of the past. They are of three kinds: primary, secondary and oral sources.
Key idea 1 : Primary sources — They belong to the very period. E.g. inscriptions, copper plates, coins, old documents, weapons, old temples. They give authentic information about that time.
Key idea 2 : Secondary sources — Information written by researchers after studying primary sources. E.g. history books, articles, documentaries, encyclopedias, experts’ lectures.
Key idea 3 : Oral sources — Things passed on by word of mouth over generations. E.g. folktales, ovi, powada, folk songs, proverbs, elders’ memories. They tell about daily life of times for which no written evidence exists.
- Easy : What kind of source is an old coin? — Primary.
- Medium : What kind of source is a chapter in a history book? — Secondary.
- Exam-type : What kind of information comes from a village powada? — Oral. Historians check it against other sources.
In the figure: Primary, secondary and oral sources, with an example of each.
History rests on evidence; the evidence is called ‘sources’.
It is not that oral sources are false; historians only use them after checking and matching them with other sources.
Primary = from that time; secondary = written after study; oral = spoken. Memory clue: ‘same-study-spoken’.
Spot the difference
| Type | What | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Primary | Direct evidence of the time | Inscriptions, coins |
| Secondary | Information made from study | Books, encyclopedias |
| Oral | Spoken across generations | Ovi, powada |
Practice questions
- 1What are sources of history?
- 2Which are the three kinds of sources?
- 3Give two examples of primary sources.
- 4What is a secondary source?
- 5Why are oral sources useful?
- 6Why is history compared with a jigsaw puzzle?
- 7Identify three objects in your home and write what type of source each would be.
- 8Why must historians be careful while using oral sources? Write your opinion.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Objects, writings and memories that give evidence of the past.
- 2Primary, secondary and oral.
- 3Inscriptions and coins (or copper plates, weapons).
- 4Information written by researchers from the study of primary sources.
- 5Because they show the daily life, traditions and culture of times with no written evidence.
- 6Because old objects are like puzzle pieces; joined together they make a picture of the past.
- 7E.g. old photo — primary; grandmother’s stories — oral; a printed book about the family — secondary.
- 8Because stories change as they are retold; one must check if they match other evidence.
Material and written sources
A key found in an old classroom and an entry in an old notebook both tell the school’s history; one can be seen, the other can be read.
Material sources are objects we can see (coins, pots, weapons, buildings). Written sources are written evidence (inscriptions, copper plates, texts, travelogues).
Key idea 1 : What material sources tell — Grains, seeds and animal bones found in excavations show what people ate. Weapons and forts show defence and warfare, and coins and seals show rulers’ names, economy and art.
Key idea 2 : Historical and prehistoric period — The period with written evidence is the ‘historical period’. The time before scripts developed is the ‘prehistoric period’; we know it mainly from material sources.
Key idea 3 : Written sources — Records written by merchants, travellers, kings and scholars show script, language, customs and politics. Land-grant orders were engraved on copper plates and moral messages on rock and pillars.
- Easy : Wheat grains were found in an excavation; what do we learn? — The people knew wheat and grew or ate it.
- Medium : If a coin has a king’s name, what do we learn? — The ruler’s name and the economy.
- Exam-type : Why are there no written proofs of the prehistoric period? — Because scripts had not developed then.
In the figure: Material sources (objects) and written sources (writing).
What happened before Prinsep deciphered Brahmi? Brahmi writing was carved on many pillars and rocks, but for centuries nobody could read it. James Prinsep, secretary of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta, received copies of inscriptions from all over the country. He noticed that many short inscriptions at places like Sanchi ended with the same two letters. He guessed it was the word ‘danam’ (gift), and that one key opened up the letters one by one.
What happened after Prinsep deciphered Brahmi? In 1837 Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi script. He learnt that the king in the inscriptions called himself ‘Devanampiya Piyadasi’; at first he thought it was a king of Sri Lanka. Then George Turnour, studying Pali texts in Sri Lanka, supplied the link that this king was Ashoka. Later, in 1915, an inscription found at Maski in Karnataka used the very name ‘Ashoka’ and the doubt ended.
Material = can be seen; written = can be read; both are primary sources.
Not all ancient writing is in one script; Ashoka’s inscriptions are mostly in Brahmi but some are in Kharoshthi and Aramaic.
Material = see; written = read. Memory clue: ‘see and read’.
Spot the difference
| Point | Material sources | Written sources |
|---|---|---|
| Form | Objects, buildings | Writing, texts |
| Example | Coins, pots, weapons | Inscriptions, copper plates |
| What we learn | Life, art, defence | Language, script, administration |
Practice questions
- 1What are material sources?
- 2Give two examples of written sources.
- 3What is the prehistoric period?
- 4What information do coins give?
- 5Who deciphered the Brahmi script and when?
- 6What were copper plates used for?
- 7How did Prinsep find the first key? Tell in your own words.
- 8Write the difference between material and written sources in three points.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Objects that can be seen, e.g. coins, pots, weapons, buildings.
- 2Inscriptions and copper plates (or texts, travelogues).
- 3The time before scripts developed.
- 4The king’s name, economy, religion and art.
- 5James Prinsep; in 1837.
- 6To engrave royal orders on land grants and tax exemptions.
- 7Many inscriptions ended with the same two letters; he guessed ‘danam’ and the other letters followed from there.
- 8Form: objects vs writing; example: coins vs inscriptions; information: life-art vs language-administration.
Sources of ancient Indian history
Reading an old recipe book or letters written by ancestors shows life of that time. Ancient texts and inscriptions take us to the past in the same way.
The ancient period runs from the Stone Age to about the 8th century CE. The Stone Age is known from excavations and the later period from written sources.
Key idea 1 : The Vedas and religious texts — The Vedas are the oldest source of Indian history. They were first kept by memorising and later written down. Four Vedas: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda. Later the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads were composed, as well as the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Key idea 2 : Buddhist and Jain texts — Buddhist texts are called ‘Tipitaka’; they are in Pali and contain Buddha’s teachings, rules for monks and philosophy. Jain texts are known as ‘Agamas’; they are in Ardhamagadhi and contain Mahavira’s teachings and the importance of ahimsa.
Key idea 3 : Ashoka’s inscriptions and travelogues — Emperor Ashoka conveyed his ideas to his people through rock and pillar inscriptions, mostly in the Brahmi script. Travelogues of foreign travellers give information about education, religion and daily life of that time.
- Easy : Which is the oldest source? — The Vedas.
- Medium : In which language is the Tipitaka? — Pali.
- Exam-type : In which language are the Jain Agama texts? — Ardhamagadhi.
In the figure: Vedas, Buddhist-Jain texts and inscriptions — sources of ancient history.
Tipitaka = Pali = Buddhist; Agama = Ardhamagadhi = Jain.
The Vedas were not written from the beginning; they were first preserved by oral memorising.
Tipitaka–Pali, Agama–Ardhamagadhi. Memory clue: ‘T-P, A-A’: Tipitaka with Pali, Agama with Ardhamagadhi.
Spot the difference
| Text | Language | Tradition |
|---|---|---|
| Tipitaka | Pali | Buddhist |
| Agamas | Ardhamagadhi | Jain |
| Vedas | Vedic Sanskrit | Vedic |
Practice questions
- 1What period is counted as the ancient period?
- 2Name the four Vedas.
- 3What does the Tipitaka contain?
- 4Whose texts are the Agamas?
- 5How did Ashoka convey his ideas to his people?
- 6In which scripts are Ashoka’s inscriptions?
- 7Why are travelogues of foreign travellers useful?
- 8Why might the Vedas have been kept orally at first? Write your opinion.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1From the Stone Age to about the 8th century CE.
- 2Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda.
- 3Buddha’s teachings, rules for monks and philosophy.
- 4Of Jainism.
- 5Through rock and pillar inscriptions.
- 6Mostly Brahmi, some in Kharoshthi and Aramaic.
- 7Because they show the education, religion and daily life of that time.
- 8Writing may not have been developed or writing materials were scarce, and a method of memorising was well developed.
Museums and heritage sites in Maharashtra
We keep our grandparents’ old things safely. Society does the work of preserving old objects and buildings through museums and heritage sites.
A museum keeps and displays historical objects. Heritage sites are historical and cultural places that must be protected; some are recognised by UNESCO as World Heritage.
Key idea 1 : Museums in Maharashtra — Well known are the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya in Mumbai, the museum of Deccan College and the Raja Dinkar Kelkar Museum in Pune, the Central Museum in Nagpur, the Shahu Museum in Kolhapur, the Shivaji Maharaj Museum in Satara and the Shanti-Krishna Museum of Money and History near Nashik.
Key idea 2 : World Heritage sites — Ajanta and Ellora caves were listed in 1983, the Gharapuri (Elephanta) caves in 1987 and Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus in 1997. The Western Ghats of the Sahyadri were recognised as natural heritage in 2012. Twelve forts were recognised as ‘Maratha Military Landscapes’; 11 of them are in Maharashtra and Jinji is in Tamil Nadu.
Key idea 3 : Protecting is our duty — Heritage sites bear witness to history and awaken pride. Not littering, not carving names on walls and telling others the same is our job.
- Easy : When did Ajanta-Ellora become World Heritage? — 1983.
- Medium : How many forts of the Maratha Military Landscapes are in Maharashtra? — 11.
- Exam-type : Which museum is at Satara? — The Shivaji Maharaj Museum.
In the figure: World Heritage sites of Maharashtra and the years they were listed.
What happened before Ajanta was found again? The Ajanta caves were cut from about the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE. Later they were abandoned and covered by jungle. Chinese travellers knew of them, but the wider world had forgotten them.
What happened after Ajanta was found again? On 28 April 1819 Captain John Smith of the Madras regiment was hunting a tiger in the horseshoe-shaped gorge of the Waghora river when a helper pointed out a cave high up. Inside he saw coloured paintings on the walls. He scratched his name and the date on one painting; it is still seen in Cave 10. The news spread; in 1844 Major Robert Gill was given the work of making copies of the paintings, and later the caves became world famous.
Ajanta-Ellora 1983; Gharapuri 1987; CSMT 1997; Western Ghats 2012.
The Western Ghats are not man-made; they are natural heritage, while caves and forts are cultural heritage.
83 – 87 – 97 – 12 (2012). Memory clue: One line of four marks: caves, caves, station, ghats.
Spot the difference
| Site | Year | Kind |
|---|---|---|
| Ajanta-Ellora | 1983 | Cultural |
| Gharapuri | 1987 | Cultural |
| Western Ghats | 2012 | Natural |
Practice questions
- 1What is a museum?
- 2Name two museums of Maharashtra.
- 3When did Ajanta-Ellora become World Heritage?
- 4What kind of heritage are the Western Ghats?
- 5What are the ‘Maratha Military Landscapes’?
- 6How did the Ajanta caves come to light again?
- 7What will you do to protect a heritage site? Write three things.
- 8John Smith scratched his name on a painting; was that right? Write your opinion.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A place where historical objects are preserved and shown to people.
- 2Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya in Mumbai and the Raja Dinkar Kelkar Museum in Pune.
- 3In 1983.
- 4Natural heritage.
- 5Twelve forts that symbolise Maratha military planning and received World Heritage recognition.
- 6In 1819 Captain John Smith found the cave by chance during a tiger hunt.
- 7Not littering, not writing names on walls, telling others to protect it.
- 8No; it is damage to historic paintings and protecting heritage is our duty.