Use of metals
A museum keeper in Denmark had boxes full of old tools. To arrange them, he asked: which are oldest? He sorted them by material, and so found a pattern of the past.
The Three Age System (त्रिकाल पद्धती), introduced by Christian Thomsen, classifies prehistoric tools as the Stone Age, the Copper Age and the Iron Age.
Rule 1: Three ages — Thomsen showed with evidence that stone tools were the earliest, then copper, then iron. Archaeologists afterwards used this order to arrange finds in many countries.
In the figure : In the figure tools show three ages: stone first, then copper, then iron.
- Easy : Easy: Stone age came first.
- Medium : Medium: Order: stone, copper, iron.
- Exam-type : Exam: Thomsen classified artefacts by material.
Rule 2: Gold, copper and bronze — People once believed copper was the first metal. Actually gold was first, but it is soft and not good for tools. Then people found copper, used 7000 years ago for tools. Where copper was rare, stone tools stayed in use; these sites are Chalcolithic (chalcos = copper, lithos = stone). Copper is hard but still soft; adding tin makes the alloy bronze (कांस्य), which is hard enough. Metals must be melted to make an alloy.
In the figure : In the figure bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.
- Easy : Easy: Bronze = copper + tin.
- Medium : Medium: Gold was first but too soft for tools.
- Exam-type : Exam: Chalcolithic sites have few copper objects and mainly stone tools.
Order of metals: gold (soft), copper, then bronze. Bronze = copper + tin.
Thinking copper was the first metal. Gold was first.
Memory clue: "सोने मऊ, तांबे बरे, कांस्य भारी".
Spot the difference
| Metal | Use for tools |
|---|---|
| Gold | Too soft |
| Copper | Usable, still soft |
| Bronze | Hard alloy |
Practice questions
- 1Who introduced the Three Age System?
- 2Name the three ages.
- 3Which metal was first used?
- 4Why was gold not used for tools?
- 5How old is the use of copper?
- 6What is an alloy?
- 7What does Chalcolithic mean?
- 87000 years ago from 2026 is which year approximately?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Christian Thomsen.
- 2Stone, Copper and Iron Ages.
- 3Gold.
- 4It is too soft.
- 5About 7000 years.
- 6A mixture of metals made by melting.
- 7Copper and stone.
- 82026 − 7000 = about 4974 BCE.
Pots made on the potter's wheel
A potter rotates a lump of clay on a spinning wheel and a pot rises in his hands in minutes. Before the wheel, the same pot took hours by hand.
The wheel (चाक) is the most important invention of the Copper Age; it was first used by potters (कुंभार).
Rule 1: Invention of the potter's wheel — The Copper Age saw many inventions and rapid change. At first a rotating plank probably turned the pot while it was shaped with one hand. The potter's wheel probably grew out of efforts to improve this plank. Till recent times, tribal women in north-eastern India shaped pots with a rotating plank.
In the figure : In the figure the wheel was first used by potters.
- Easy : Easy: A potter shapes clay on a wheel.
- Medium : Medium: The wheel came from a rotating plank.
- Exam-type : Exam: Carts used the wheel a little later.
Rule 2: Pivot and potters' lanes — A pointed quartz pebble fixed under the wheel is the pivot (आधार-टोक); the wheel balances on it and spins fast. With the wheel, pots could be made in large numbers, even and colourful with beautiful designs. Potters and other craftsmen came to live near each other, forming the industrial area of the village. Villages with easy raw material and good trade routes grew fast.
- Easy : Easy: Pivot lets the wheel spin.
- Medium : Medium: A potter makes 20 pots a day with a wheel instead of 5.
- Exam-type : Exam: Craftsmen near each other made an industrial area.
Wheel: potters first; pivot; many pots; craft areas.
Thinking the wheel was first made for carts. Potters used it first.
Memory clue: "चाक = आधी भांडे, मग गाडी".
Spot the difference
| Item | Role |
|---|---|
| Rotating plank | Early step |
| Pivot | Balances the wheel |
| Potter's wheel | Many fine pots |
Practice questions
- 1Who first used the wheel?
- 2What came before the wheel?
- 3What is the pivot?
- 4What did the wheel allow?
- 5Who still used a rotating plank recently?
- 6What did potters and craftsmen form?
- 7A potter makes 12 pots per hour. How many in 5 hours?
- 8Why did such villages grow fast?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Potters.
- 2A rotating plank.
- 3A pointed quartz pebble under the wheel.
- 4Many even, pretty pots.
- 5Tribal women of north-east India.
- 6The industrial area of the village.
- 712 × 5 = 60.
- 8Easy raw material and good trade routes.
Trade and transport
A potter who makes 100 pots cannot sell them all in his lane. He loads them on a cart and takes them to a distant town.
Wheeled vehicles (चाकाची वाहने) like carts and chariots came into use when production and trade grew.
Rule 1: Carts and chariots — As production grew, trade grew too, so old ways of transport had to change. Wheeled carts and chariots were first used in Mesopotamia. The Harappan (Indus) civilization was the earliest civilization on the Indian subcontinent; wheeled toy-carts of that civilization have been found.
In the figure : In the figure wheeled vehicles first came into use in Mesopotamia.
- Easy : Easy: A cart has wheels.
- Medium : Medium: Toy carts show Harappans used wheels.
- Exam-type : Exam: Mesopotamia first used carts and chariots.
Rule 2: Why transport changed — More pots, grain and tools had to travel to distant markets. Carrying loads on heads or backs was too slow and too little. A cart pulled by bullocks could carry far more.
- Easy : Easy: A cart carries more than a person.
- Medium : Medium: A person carries 20 kg; a cart 400 kg, which is 20 times more.
- Exam-type : Exam: Trade grew, so carts were needed.
Trade grew → wheeled carts and chariots (Mesopotamia first).
Thinking Harappan carts were the first in the world. Mesopotamia was first.
Memory clue: "मेसोपोटेमिया पहिले, हडप्पात खेळणी".
Spot the difference
| Place | Fact |
|---|---|
| Mesopotamia | First carts, chariots |
| Harappa | Toy carts found |
Practice questions
- 1Why was transport changed?
- 2Name two wheeled vehicles.
- 3Where were they first used?
- 4Which was the earliest civilization of India?
- 5What proves Harappans knew wheels?
- 6Why is a cart better than carrying on the head?
- 7A cart carries 6 sacks per trip. How many sacks in 7 trips?
- 8Why do toy carts matter to historians?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Trade and production grew.
- 2Cart and chariot.
- 3Mesopotamia.
- 4Harappan (Indus).
- 5Wheeled toy-carts found.
- 6It carries more and is faster.
- 76 × 7 = 42.
- 8They show real carts existed.
Rise of cities and script
When many shops, potters, weavers and traders gather in one place, a market town forms. In the same way, early cities formed where trade met crafts.
Cities (शहरे) arose where long-distance trade, quick transport and large-scale production brought people of different occupations together.
Rule 1: Rise of cities — Long-distance trade, rapid transport and centres of large-scale production brought together people doing different kinds of work, and cities arose.
In the figure : In the figure trade and large-scale production gave rise to cities.
- Easy : Easy: Cities had traders and craftsmen.
- Medium : Medium: A city needs a market.
- Exam-type : Exam: Name three causes of cities.
Rule 2: Script and records — Permanent records of trade and production became necessary. Signs and symbols were already used; many potsherds (broken pot pieces) with such signs have been found. As records grew, each culture developed its own script (लिपी).
Rule 3: The Rosetta Stone — In 1799 a stone was found in Egypt. The Rosetta Stone is now in the British Museum, London. It carries the same message in three scripts: Egyptian hieroglyphs ('script of gods') on top, Demotic in the middle and Greek at the bottom. It announces the ascension of King Ptolemy V. Using the Greek text, the French teacher Jean François Champollion could read the forgotten hieroglyphs; he announced his success in 1822.
In the figure : In the figure Champollion used the Greek text to read the forgotten hieroglyphs.
- Easy : Easy: The stone has three scripts.
- Medium : Medium: Greek was known, so it unlocked hieroglyphs.
- Exam-type : Exam: The stone was found in 1799 and read in 1822, after 1822 − 1799 = 23 years.
Trade → cities → records → scripts. Rosetta Stone: 1799, three scripts.
Thinking the Rosetta Stone had three languages. It has two languages in three scripts (Egyptian and Greek).
Memory clue: "तीन लिप्या, एक मजकूर, ग्रीक चावी".
Spot the difference
| Script on stone | Position |
|---|---|
| Hieroglyphs | Top |
| Demotic | Middle |
| Greek | Bottom |
Practice questions
- 1What gave rise to cities?
- 2Why were records needed?
- 3What are potsherds?
- 4When was the Rosetta Stone found?
- 5Where is it kept?
- 6Name its three scripts.
- 7Who read the hieroglyphs?
- 8Why did the Greek help?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Trade, quick transport and large production.
- 2To keep trade and production accounts.
- 3Broken pieces of pots.
- 41799.
- 5British Museum, London.
- 6Hieroglyphs, Demotic, Greek.
- 7Jean François Champollion.
- 8People could still read Greek.
Social organization in the ancient cities
In a big city, the tallest and grandest building is often a temple, a palace or a market hall. It shows what the city cares about most.
Ancient cities grew out of the culture of New Stone Age village-settlements; grand temples became centres of city life.
Rule 1: From village faith to city temples — Trade was the main reason cities arose, but city culture had its roots in village-settlement culture. The faith system based on agriculture continued. Social life and festivals became more elaborate in prosperous trading cities.
In the figure : In the figure temples became centres of city life and rule.
- Easy : Easy: Cities held big festivals.
- Medium : Medium: Farm gods stayed important in cities.
- Exam-type : Exam: City culture grew from village culture.
Rule 2: Temple heads and kings — Grand temples were built, and the temple chiefs became the chief administrators of the cities. Later, the posts of temple head and king went to the same person. This was the beginning of the ancient urban civilizations.
- Easy : Easy: A temple head was a leader.
- Medium : Medium: Later one person was priest and king.
- Exam-type : Exam: Temples led to urban rule.
Village faith → grand temples → temple head rules → priest-king.
Thinking cities started with kings only. Temples came first.
Memory clue: "गाव → मंदिर → नगर → राजा".
Spot the difference
| Step | Result |
|---|---|
| Village faith | Continued in cities |
| Grand temples | City centres |
| Temple head | Chief administrator |
| Priest-king | Same person ruled |
Practice questions
- 1What was the main cause of cities?
- 2Where were the roots of city culture?
- 3What stayed in city life from villages?
- 4What did cities build?
- 5Who administered the cities?
- 6What happened later to the two posts?
- 7Why were festivals bigger in trading cities?
- 8Name two things that a city had but a village did not.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Trade.
- 2In village-settlement culture.
- 3The faith system based on agriculture.
- 4Grand temples.
- 5Temple chiefs.
- 6One person held both.
- 7They were rich and had many people.
- 8Grand temples and written records.
Quick revision
- Thomsen's Three Age System: Stone, Copper and Iron Ages; gold was the first metal used.
- The wheel was first used by potters; carts and chariots came later; trade created cities.
- Each culture developed its own script; temples and kings led the ancient cities.