The Vedas and the Upanishads
Grandparents' tales pass by word of mouth through generations; the Vedas too were kept by mouth for centuries.
The Vedas (vid = to know) are four: Ṛig, Yajur, Sāma and Atharva. They were first kept by memorising. The Upaniṣhads are thoughts on life, death, ātman and brahman, often as questions and answers.
In the figure : The four Vedas and their stream of thought.
Rule 1: How the Vedas were preserved — The Vedas were kept for centuries not in writing but by chanting with fixed intonation. The Ṛig Veda is dated to about the fifth to second millennium BCE. In 2008 UNESCO recognised Vedic chanting as intangible cultural heritage. Rishis and rishikas (women seers) preserved the tradition.
- Easy : There are four Vedas.
- Medium : Vedic chanting was taught by mouth, generation to generation.
- Exam-type : How did the Vedas survive without writing? Answer: through memorising and exact intonation.
Rule 2: Questions of the Upaniṣhads — In the Upaniṣhads students ask and teachers answer. For example Nachiketa questions Yama about death; Gārgī asks Yājñavalkya deep questions. Ideas such as rebirth, karma, ātman (inner self) and brahman (ultimate reality) are set out here. Vedānta and Yoga later grew from them.
- Easy : Nachiketa asked about death.
- Medium : Gārgī questioned Yājñavalkya in an assembly.
- Exam-type : What is special about the Upaniṣhads' method? Answer: questions, answers and dialogue.
"Ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti": truth is one, the wise speak of it in many ways.
Thinking the Veda is one book. It is four collections.
Four Vedas: Ṛ-Y-S-A. Memory clue : "R-Y-S-A".
Spot the difference
| Term | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Veda | Ancient collection of knowledge | Ṛig Veda |
| Upaniṣhad | Thought in a teacher-student dialogue | Nachiketa-Yama dialogue |
| Brahman | Ultimate reality | Upaniṣhadic idea |
| Ātman | The inner self in everyone | Upaniṣhadic idea |
Practice questions
- 1Name the four Vedas.
- 2From which root does "Veda" come?
- 3Who is a rishika?
- 4When did UNESCO recognise Vedic chanting?
- 5Name two questioners in the Upaniṣhads.
- 6What is ṛitam?
- 7What are the merits of an oral tradition?
- 8Link the saying "Ekam sat…" to living together today.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Ṛig, Yajur, Sāma and Atharva Veda.
- 2vid = to know.
- 3A woman seer.
- 4In 2008.
- 5Nachiketa and Gārgī.
- 6The order or law of the universe.
- 7Knowledge is not lost with the writing material, is remembered by listening, and the teacher-student bond grows.
- 8Truth may be one but people see it by different paths, so we should respect others' views.
The Buddha and Mahāvīra
Even children ask why there is sorrow and how to lessen it; these two great teachers looked for answers to just that.
The Buddha (Siddhārtha Gautama) and Mahāvīra (Vardhamāna) left home about 2,500 years ago in search of truth. Ahimsa is a central value in Buddhist and Jain thought.
In the figure : Teachings of the Buddha and Mahāvīra.
Rule 1: Gautama Buddha — Siddhārtha was born at Lumbini about 560 BCE. At 29 he left the palace and at Bodh Gaya attained enlightenment, becoming the "Buddha" (awakened one). He taught that sorrow arises from avidyā (ignorance) and attachment. He taught ahimsa and a middle path, and a Sangha of followers formed.
- Easy : The Buddha was born at Lumbini.
- Medium : He attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya.
- Exam-type : Give two causes of sorrow. Answer: ignorance (avidyā) and attachment.
Rule 2: Mahāvīra and Jain thought — Vardhamāna was born near Vaiśhālī. At 30 he left home, practised austerity for about 12 years and became a "Jina" (conqueror of the self). Jain thought stresses ahimsa, anekāntavāda (see truth from many sides), aparigraha (not collecting more than needed) and the interdependence of all beings.
- Easy : Jina means conqueror.
- Medium : Aparigraha = not hoarding beyond need.
- Exam-type : What is anekāntavāda? Answer: viewing truth from many angles.
Buddha: ignorance + attachment = sorrow. Mahāvīra: ahimsa + aparigraha.
Thinking Buddha and Mahāvīra are one person. They were two teachers.
Buddha = Bodh Gaya; Mahāvīra = Jina. Memory clue : "Buddha-Bodh, Mahāvīra-Jina".
Spot the difference
| Term | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Buddha | The awakened one | Siddhārtha Gautama |
| Sangha | Community of Buddhist monks | Buddha's followers |
| Jina | One who has conquered the self | Mahāvīra |
| Anekāntavāda | Many sides of truth | Jain thought |
Practice questions
- 1Where was the Buddha born?
- 2At what age did he leave the palace?
- 3What does "jina" mean?
- 4For how long did Mahāvīra practise austerity?
- 5What is aparigraha?
- 6Which value is common to both teachings?
- 7How can anekāntavāda help settle a classroom dispute?
- 8What cure for sorrow did the Buddha suggest?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Lumbini.
- 229.
- 3Conqueror (of the self).
- 4About 12 years.
- 5Not collecting more than needed.
- 6Ahimsa.
- 7Hearing both sides and viewing the matter from many angles reduces the quarrel.
- 8Reducing ignorance and attachment and living by the middle path.
Many schools of thought and common roots
One tree has many branches; India's schools of thought are branches of a common trunk.
Many streams of thought lived side by side in India: Vedic-Upaniṣhadic, Buddhist, Jain, Chārvāka, and folk and tribal traditions. They often share dharma, karma and rebirth, so the book speaks of "schools of thought".
In the figure : Common and different aspects of India's traditions.
Rule 1: Stories, art and monasteries — Jātaka tales tell of the Buddha's earlier lives, often with animal heroes like the monkey king. Rock-cut caves and monasteries (for example Ellora) were centres of learning and practice. At Ellora Hindu, Buddhist and Jain caves stand in one area.
- Easy : Ellora is in Maharashtra.
- Medium : Jātaka tales often have animal heroes.
- Exam-type : What is special about Ellora? Answer: caves of three traditions together.
Rule 2: Different views and folk traditions — The Chārvāka school accepted only direct evidence and questioned Vedic authority, so India made room for disagreement. Tribal and folk traditions passed on by stories, songs and rituals also teach respect for nature and living together.
- Easy : Chārvākas asked questions.
- Medium : Folk traditions are kept in songs.
- Exam-type : Why "schools of thought"? Answer: because they are ways of thinking about life and the universe, not just forms of worship.
Many views coexisted in India, with room even for disagreement.
Thinking all traditions were the same. They share roots but also differ.
Common trunk + different branches. Memory clue : "One trunk, many branches".
Spot the difference
| Term | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Jātaka tales | Stories of the Buddha's earlier lives | Monkey king tale |
| Chārvāka | School trusting direct evidence | Questions on the Vedas |
| Rock-cut cave | Chamber or temple cut into rock | Ellora |
| Monastery | Home and school of monks | Buddhist/Jain monasteries |
Practice questions
- 1Whom do Jātaka tales concern?
- 2In which state are the Ellora caves?
- 3What did the Chārvākas accept?
- 4Name three shared ideas.
- 5What is a monastery?
- 6What does the existence of Chārvākas tell us?
- 7How are folk traditions kept today?
- 8Why is "schools of thought" preferred to "religion"?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The Buddha's earlier lives.
- 2Maharashtra.
- 3Only direct evidence.
- 4Dharma, karma, rebirth.
- 5A home and school for monks.
- 6Disagreement and questioning had a place.
- 7Through songs, stories, festivals and arts.
- 8Because they hold varied thinking on life and the world and exchanged ideas, without one rigid frame.