The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
Your school captain is chosen by the students; the post does not pass down from the principal's family. So who holds the power in the school? In 1789 the people of France asked the very same question about their whole country.
A nation-state is a state in which most of the citizens, and not only the ruler, feel they share one identity and one history. In France the revolution moved sovereignty (the final power) from the king to the body of citizens. Ideas such as la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) told people they belonged to one community with equal rights under a constitution.
In the figure : France changed step by step: the revolution first, then Napoleon's laws, and finally his fall.
Rule 1 : Power passes from the king to the citizens — The revolutionaries created symbols and rules that made people feel like one nation: a new flag, an elected assembly, common laws and a common language.
- Easy : The three-colour flag (tricolour) replaced the king's old standard.
- Medium : The Estates General was elected by active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
- Exam-type : Internal customs duties were removed and one system of weights and measures was used; Paris French became the national language.
Rule 2 : Napoleon exported the reforms, and also the burdens — Napoleon brought efficient, modern laws to the lands he ruled, but higher taxes, censorship and forced army service made many people see the French as rulers, not liberators.
- Easy : The Civil Code of 1804 ended privileges based on birth and gave equality before the law.
- Medium : Serfdom, feudal dues and guild restrictions were removed in many conquered areas.
- Exam-type : Welcome turned into anger when taxes, censorship and forced army service increased.
A nation-state is built by citizens who share an identity; it is not there from the beginning of time.
Thinking Napoleon brought only freedom. He ended democracy in France, yet kept modern laws that made the administration efficient.
Memory clue : One flag, one law, one tongue — this is how France built a feeling of one nation.
What happened before? (French Revolution, 1789) On 20 June 1789 the commoners' deputies (the Third Estate) reached their meeting hall at Versailles and found it locked and guarded. They walked to a nearby indoor tennis court and swore not to separate until France had a constitution. Almost every deputy signed.
What happened next? (French Revolution, 1789) Just weeks later, on 4 August 1789 the Assembly ended feudal privileges, and on 26 August it adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Its ideas of liberty and equality were later copied by liberals in other parts of Europe.
Spot the difference
| Matter | Before 1789 | After the revolution |
|---|---|---|
| Source of power | The king | The citizens |
| Flag | Royal standard | Tricolour |
| Laws and measures | Different in each region | Uniform for all |
Practice questions
- 1What is a nation-state?
- 2Which flag replaced the old royal standard of France?
- 3What does le citoyen mean?
- 4Why did people in conquered lands become unhappy with French rule?
- 5How did the Civil Code of 1804 change society?
- 6Why did traders welcome uniform weights, measures and currency?
- 7Napoleon ended democracy in France, yet some people say he brought modern ideas to Europe. Explain both.
- 8Show the chain: Tennis Court Oath, then what? What did the Assembly do in August 1789?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1A state whose citizens, not only its ruler, share a common identity and history.
- 2The tricolour.
- 3The citizen.
- 4Taxes rose, there was censorship and young men were forced into the French army, while political freedom did not follow.
- 5It ended privileges by birth, gave equality before the law and protected the right to property.
- 6Goods and money could move easily and calculations became simple.
- 7He restored monarchy and took away political freedom. But his Civil Code, simpler administration and removal of feudal dues spread equality before law and efficiency.
- 8The deputies refused to separate until there was a constitution; in August the Assembly ended feudal privileges and issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
Liberals, Conservatives and Revolutionaries (1815-1848)
In a class meeting one group wants to keep every old rule, another wants a written class constitution, and a third wants to change everything at once. Europe after Napoleon split into the same three camps.
Liberalism (from Latin liber, free) meant freedom of the individual, equality before the law and government by consent. Conservatives wanted to protect monarchy, the Church and tradition. After 1815 the Congress of Vienna, hosted by Austria's Chancellor Metternich, tried to undo Napoleon's changes. Secret societies of revolutionaries grew in reply.
In the figure : Between 1815 and 1848 conservative order, secret societies and liberal revolts kept clashing.
Rule 1 : Liberal nationalism: freedom, a constitution and a free market — Middle-class liberals wanted an elected parliament and a single economic territory. Yet 'equality' still left out women and men without property from voting.
- Easy : A customs union (zollverein) formed in 1834 under Prussia cut tariff barriers and reduced currencies from over thirty to two.
- Medium : In 1833 a trader travelling from Hamburg to Nuremberg crossed 11 customs barriers and paid duty at each one.
- Exam-type : Liberals asked for a constitution and a parliament, but only property-owning men were allowed to vote.
Rule 2 : Conservative reaction and the rise of revolutionaries — The 1815 settlement restored old kings, set up strong buffer states around France and used censorship. Liberal-nationalists went underground; revolts followed in 1830 and 1848.
- Easy : Metternich hosted the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and wanted the old order back.
- Medium : Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy and Young Europe to spread the dream of free nations.
- Exam-type : The Greek war of independence (from 1821) ended with Greece recognised as free by the Treaty of Constantinople in 1832.
Early liberalism meant freedom mainly for property-owning men, not for everybody.
Thinking nineteenth-century liberals wanted votes for all adults. Women and poor men were left out.
Memory clue : Liberals = Law and Liberty; Conservatives = Crown and Custom — use the first letters to separate the two camps.
Spot the difference
| Group | Believed in | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Liberals | Constitution, equality before law, free markets | Customs union of 1834 |
| Conservatives | Monarchy, Church, tradition | Vienna settlement of 1815 |
| Revolutionaries | Free nation-states and republics | Mazzini's Young Italy |
Practice questions
- 1Which congress in 1815 tried to undo Napoleon's changes?
- 2Who hosted the Congress of Vienna?
- 3What was the zollverein?
- 4Why did conservatives accept some modernisation after 1815?
- 5In what way was liberal 'equality' limited in the early nineteenth century?
- 6What did Giuseppe Mazzini want for Italy?
- 7How did the wish of traders for a single economic territory help national unity?
- 8Why was the 1830s-40s a period of hardship, and how did this lead to revolts?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The Congress of Vienna.
- 2Austria's Chancellor Metternich.
- 3A customs union formed in 1834 that removed tariff barriers among German states.
- 4They saw that an efficient army, bureaucracy and economy could make monarchies stronger.
- 5Only property-owning men could vote; women and poor men were excluded.
- 6A single unified republic instead of many small states and kingdoms.
- 7Removing customs barriers and fixing common currency and measures tied regions together, so economic interest strengthened national feeling.
- 8Population grew, jobs were scarce, small producers faced cheap English machine goods and bad harvests raised food prices; this anger exploded in the revolts of 1848.
Making of Germany and Italy; the Case of Britain
Many small cricket clubs in a town decide to form one town team. Someone must lead, someone must raise funds and someone must pick the players. Germany and Italy were joined in a similar way, though through war and diplomacy.
Unification means joining many small states into one nation-state. In Germany it was led by the Kingdom of Prussia and its chief minister Otto von Bismarck. In Italy it was led by Sardinia-Piedmont, its minister Cavour and the volunteer leader Garibaldi. Britain became one state differently, by a gradual process.
In the figure : Two unifications ten years apart: Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871.
Rule 1 : Germany: army, state and 'blood and iron' — After the liberal attempt of 1848 failed, Prussia took charge. With a strong army and bureaucracy it fought three wars in about seven years and gathered the German states under its king.
- Easy : Bismarck was Prussia's chief minister and the main architect.
- Medium : The three wars were against Austria, Denmark and France.
- Exam-type : In January 1871 the Prussian king William I was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles, and the new state unified currency, banking and law.
Rule 2 : Italy: a patchwork joined by Cavour, Garibaldi and the king — Italy had seven states and only Sardinia-Piedmont had an Italian ruling family. Cavour won French help and defeated Austria in 1859; Garibaldi's volunteers then took the south in 1860.
- Easy : Italy was divided into seven states before unification.
- Medium : Cavour made a clever alliance with France, which helped drive Austria out of the north.
- Exam-type : Garibaldi handed the conquered south to King Victor Emmanuel II, who was proclaimed King of Italy in 1861.
Germany and Italy were united by state power, war and diplomacy, not by popular revolt alone.
Thinking Garibaldi became king of Italy. He gave the south to Victor Emmanuel II, who became king.
Memory clue : Italy's trio: Cavour = brain, Garibaldi = sword, Victor Emmanuel = crown — and for Germany remember Bismarck = blood and iron.
What happened before? (German unification, 1871) On 13 July 1870 King William I sent a polite telegram from the spa town of Ems about a talk with the French ambassador. Bismarck shortened it so that it sounded like an insult to France. Angry French leaders declared war on 19 July, exactly the war Bismarck needed to bring the southern German states to Prussia's side.
What happened next? (German unification, 1871) On 18 January 1871, with Paris still under siege, William I was proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the French palace of Versailles. The new empire was announced on the soil of the country it had just defeated.
What happened before? (Italian unification, 1861) In the night of 5-6 May 1860 about a thousand volunteers in plain red shirts, led by Garibaldi, sailed from near Genoa in two steamers with mostly old weapons. They landed at Marsala in Sicily on 11 May 1860 and began the march that would bring the south under one rule.
What happened next? (Italian unification, 1861) On 17 March 1861 a parliament meeting in Turin proclaimed Victor Emmanuel II King of Italy. Rome joined only later, so Italians still had a part of their country to win.
Spot the difference
| Country | Led by | Key year and method |
|---|---|---|
| Germany | Prussia under Bismarck | 1871: three wars and diplomacy |
| Italy | Sardinia-Piedmont: Cavour, Garibaldi, king | 1861: alliance, war, volunteers |
| Britain | Parliament in London | 1707: Act of Union, slowly |
Practice questions
- 1Who was the chief minister of Prussia during German unification?
- 2In which year was the Kingdom of Italy proclaimed?
- 3In which hall was William I proclaimed German Emperor?
- 4Against which three countries did Prussia fight its wars of unification?
- 5What role did Cavour play in Italian unification?
- 6How was the making of Britain different from Germany and Italy?
- 7Italians spoke related languages, yet Italy was not one nation before 1861. Why?
- 8Give the chain for Germany: the Ems telegram led to what, and then to what in January 1871?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Otto von Bismarck.
- 21861.
- 3The Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
- 4Austria, Denmark and France.
- 5As chief minister of Sardinia-Piedmont he allied with France and defeated Austria in 1859.
- 6It was not a sudden revolution or war of unification; the Act of Union of 1707 joined England and Scotland and the English parliament slowly gained control.
- 7The land was split into seven states under different rulers, some under foreign powers like Austria, so there was no single government.
- 8The edited telegram pushed France to declare war in July 1870; Prussia won, and in January 1871 William I was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles.
Symbols of the Nation; Nationalism and Imperialism
Each cricket team has a jersey, a team song and a mascot, and these make fans feel they belong together. Nations used the same trick in the nineteenth century with flags, songs and pictures.
A nation is an idea, so artists gave it a face. Marianne became the female figure of the French nation and Germania of the German nation. Later in the century nationalism became narrower and more aggressive, and in the Balkans it mixed with the rivalry of the great powers and with imperialism (a state extending its rule over other lands).
In the figure : From an artist's dream of free nations in 1848 to a great war in 1914.
Rule 1 : Nations are shown as people and symbols — Because a nation cannot be seen, artists used a woman as its allegory, with flags and objects carrying meaning, so even people who could not read felt united.
- Easy : Marianne is the female figure of France.
- Medium : Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, which stands for heroism.
- Exam-type : Allegory works because an abstract idea like a nation becomes a figure everyone can recognise.
Rule 2 : Nationalism, imperialism and the Balkans — The Ottoman Empire was weakening and many Slav peoples of the Balkans wanted freedom. Great powers such as Russia, Germany, Britain and Austria-Hungary each wanted influence there, and this rivalry helped bring on World War I in 1914.
- Easy : The Balkans is a region of southeastern Europe once ruled by the Ottomans.
- Medium : The weakness of the Ottoman Empire gave Balkan peoples a chance to demand freedom.
- Exam-type : Rival great powers plus angry nationalism made the region explosive by 1914.
Symbols such as flags, figures and songs help people imagine a nation that they cannot see.
Thinking nationalism always unites peoples peacefully. In the Balkans it also led to bitter rivalry.
Memory clue : Marianne for France, Germania for Germany, oak leaves for bravery — three clues, three marks.
Spot the difference
| Symbol | Nation | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Marianne | France | Liberty and the republic |
| Germania | Germany | Heroism (oak leaves) |
| Tricolour | France | Unity of citizens |
Practice questions
- 1Who is Marianne?
- 2What does the crown of oak leaves of Germania stand for?
- 3In which year did Sorrieu make his famous print of the nations?
- 4Why were nations shown as women in art?
- 5Why did the Balkans become a region of tension?
- 6What does imperialism mean?
- 7How did nationalism change in the late nineteenth century compared with 1848?
- 8Explain how nationalist tensions in the Balkans and great power rivalry helped lead to war in 1914.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1The female figure that stands for the French nation.
- 2Heroism.
- 31848.
- 4An abstract idea like a nation needs a recognisable face, and a figure such as Marianne made it easy to remember.
- 5The Ottoman Empire was weak, Slav peoples wanted freedom and great powers competed for influence.
- 6A state extending its rule over other lands.
- 7In 1848 it was linked to liberty and free nations, but later it became narrower and aggressive and was used by powers in rivalry and imperialism.
- 8Balkan peoples demanded freedom as the Ottoman Empire weakened, while Russia, Germany, Britain and Austria-Hungary supported rival sides; this clash of aims made a local crisis grow into a world war.
Symbols of the Nation; Nationalism and Imperialism
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