How do we learn about the past?
What is your earliest memory? That is your past. Old photographs or a grandparent's diary tell you about your family's past.
History is an unending dialogue between the present and the past. The Earth's history is very long, and humans are only its most recent small part. Different experts study the past.
In the figure : Four experts who explore the past.
Rule 1: Different experts join different threads — Geologists read the Earth's past; palaeontologists study fossils of plants, animals and humans from millions of years ago; anthropologists study societies and cultures; archaeologists dig up tools, pots, beads, bones and burnt grain.
- Easy : Fossils are remains of living things from millions of years ago.
- Medium : Archaeologists find broken pots while digging.
- Exam-type : What is the difference between an archaeologist and an anthropologist? Answer: archaeologists study objects dug from the ground; anthropologists study human societies and cultures.
Rule 2: The past helps us understand the present — Our identity and the reasons for today's successes and mistakes lie in the past. Knowing past errors helps us avoid repeating them.
- Easy : Making a family tree is an easy way to explore the past.
- Medium : History is not only happy events; mistakes also teach us.
- Exam-type : How does studying history help us? Answer: it explains who we are and helps us avoid repeating mistakes.
History is a dialogue with the past; it helps us understand today's world.
Thinking history is only kings and dates. Societies, objects and ordinary life are history too.
Four experts: Geo, Fossil, Human-society, Dig. Memory clue : "G-P-A-A" (Geologist, Palaeontologist, Anthropologist, Archaeologist).
Spot the difference
| Term | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Geologist | Studies the Earth's structure | Soil, rocks, mountains |
| Palaeontologist | Studies fossils | Ancient bones |
| Anthropologist | Studies human societies and cultures | Customs of communities |
| Archaeologist | Finds the past by digging | Pots, beads, bricks |
Practice questions
- 1What is a fossil?
- 2What does a geologist study?
- 3Name two things archaeologists find.
- 4What does an anthropologist study?
- 5Why is history called a dialogue between past and present?
- 6What is the place of humans in the Earth's history?
- 7Which sources would you use to learn your family's past?
- 8What is gained by learning from past mistakes?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Remains of plants, animals or humans from millions of years ago.
- 2The Earth's physical features — soil, rocks, mountains, rivers, seas.
- 3Any two: tools, pots, beads, bones, burnt grain, bricks.
- 4Human societies and cultures.
- 5We look at the past with today's questions, and the past helps us answer them.
- 6Humans are only a tiny, most recent part of it.
- 7Photographs, diaries, ID cards, old objects and the memories of elders.
- 8We can protect ourselves and society from repeating the same mistakes.
How is time measured in history?
You count years from your birthday; history too counts years from a chosen starting point.
The Gregorian calendar is widely used today. Years are counted forward in CE (Common Era) and backward in BCE (Before Common Era). A timeline shows the order of events. A century is 100 years; a millennium is 1,000 years.
In the figure : Rules for counting BCE and CE years.
Rule 1: The gap between BCE and CE is the sum minus one — There is no year zero, so 1 CE follows 1 BCE directly. To find the gap between a BCE and a CE year, add the two numbers and subtract 1.
- Easy : 2 BCE to 2 CE = 2 + 2 − 1 = 3 years.
- Medium : 100 BCE to 100 CE = 100 + 100 − 1 = 199 years.
- Exam-type : How long before 2025 CE was 250 BCE? Answer: 250 + 2025 − 1 = 2,274 years.
Rule 2: How centuries and millenniums are counted — CE centuries are counted from year 1: the 21st century is 2001 to 2100. BCE centuries are counted backwards from 1 BCE: the 3rd century BCE is 300 to 201 BCE. Millenniums work the same way with 1,000 years.
- Easy : 1947 falls in the 20th century.
- Medium : The 15th century is 1401 to 1500.
- Exam-type : When did the third millennium begin? Answer: in 2001.
The Indian pañchāṅga is based on the positions of the Sun and Moon and gives dates of festivals.
Thinking there is a year 0 between 1 BCE and 1 CE. There is none.
BCE-to-CE gap = sum − 1; century number = round (year ÷ 100) up. Memory clue : "Sum minus one".
Spot the difference
| Term | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| CE | Years after the conventional birth year of Jesus | 1947 CE |
| BCE | Years before it, counted backward | 560 BCE |
| Century | A period of 100 years | 21st century: 2001–2100 |
| Millennium | A period of 1,000 years | Third millennium: from 2001 |
Practice questions
- 1Give the full forms of CE and BCE.
- 2How many years make a century?
- 3How many years make a millennium?
- 4What is the gap from 1 BCE to 1 CE?
- 5In which century does 1757 fall?
- 6Which years fall in the 3rd century BCE?
- 7How does the lack of a year zero affect calculations between BCE and CE?
- 8How many years before 2025 CE was 500 BCE? Show working.
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1CE = Common Era; BCE = Before Common Era.
- 2100 years.
- 31,000 years.
- 41 + 1 − 1 = 1 year.
- 5The 18th century (1701–1800).
- 6300 BCE to 201 BCE.
- 7After adding the two numbers we must subtract 1.
- 8500 + 2025 − 1 = 2,524 years.
Sources of history
An old lantern, coin or photograph at home gives you an idea of its time — each object is a piece of a puzzle.
Sources are materials that give information about the past. Historians compare objects, buildings, coins, inscriptions, books, travel accounts, paintings and newspapers to rebuild history.
In the figure : The main sources of history.
Rule 1: Different sources are matched against each other — Sometimes sources confirm each other (the puzzle pieces match); sometimes they disagree and historians must decide which to trust more.
- Easy : If two coins point to the same king, the information is firmer.
- Medium : If a book and an inscription give different years for a battle, historians check both.
- Exam-type : Why can historians be compared to detectives? Answer: they gather clues, compare them and draw conclusions.
Rule 2: Many experts contribute to sources — Besides historians, archaeologists, epigraphists (who study inscriptions), anthropologists and language experts contribute. In the last 50 years or so, studies of ancient climate, chemistry and genetics have added fresh insights.
- Easy : An inscription is writing carved in stone.
- Medium : Newspapers are sources for recent history.
- Exam-type : How does modern science help history? Answer: chemical analysis and genetic studies provide fresh information.
Some puzzle pieces are always missing — parts of history may never be known.
Trusting a single source completely. Check many sources.
Sources = objects + buildings + writing + recent media. Memory clue : "O-B-W-M" (Objects, Buildings, Writing, Media).
Spot the difference
| Term | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Archaeological source | Things dug from the ground | Pots, beads |
| Inscription | Writing carved on stone or metal | Ashoka's inscriptions |
| Literary source | Books, poems, travel accounts | Ancient texts |
| Recent sources | Newspapers, TV, internet | History of the last 2–3 centuries |
Practice questions
- 1What are sources of history?
- 2What is an inscription?
- 3Name two sources of history.
- 4Which sources are used for recent history?
- 5What do historians do when sources do not match?
- 6Which three sources would you use to write your family history?
- 7Why can historians be compared to detectives?
- 8How have scientific studies added to our knowledge of history?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1Objects, buildings, writings and so on that give information about the past.
- 2Writing carved on stone or metal.
- 3Any two: coins, inscriptions, books, buildings, pots, travel accounts.
- 4Newspapers and electronic media such as television and the internet.
- 5They decide which source is more trustworthy.
- 6Photographs, documents and ID cards, and elders' memories.
- 7Both collect clues, match them and reach conclusions.
- 8Studies of ancient climate, chemical tests on excavated material and genetics gave new information.
The beginnings of human history
Paintings in caves can still be seen today — they were made by people thousands of years ago.
Modern humans (Homo sapiens) have lived on Earth for about 3 lakh years. Early humans were hunter-gatherers; later they began farming, kept animals and built villages.
In the figure : Main stages in human life.
Rule 1: From hunter-gatherers to farmers — At first people lived in small groups searching for shelter and food. Using fire, making stone axes and arrowheads and painting caves show their life. Later they began growing grain and keeping cattle and goats.
- Easy : Cave paintings give an idea of early human life.
- Medium : Farming gave more food and settlements grew.
- Exam-type : Why did people settle near rivers? Answer: water is available and the soil is fertile, so farming is easier.
Rule 2: The Ice Age and the growth of villages — The last Ice Age began over 1 lakh years ago and ended about 12,000 years ago; melting ice swelled rivers. Later settlements grew into villages and small towns; pottery and metals (copper first, iron later) appeared.
- Easy : During the Ice Age much of the Earth was covered with ice.
- Medium : Villages began to exchange food, cloth and tools.
- Exam-type : What BCE date is 12,000 years ago? Answer: about 10,000 BCE (12,000 − 2,025 + 1 ≈ 9,976, rounded to 10,000 BCE).
Roles shown in pictures were not fixed; women may have prepared colours or painted, and men may have cooked.
Thinking early humans were foolish. They discovered fire, tools, painting and farming and improved their lives.
Hunt → farm → village → metal. Memory clue : "H-F-V-M" (Hunt, Farm, Village, Metal).
Spot the difference
| Term | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Hunter-gatherer | One who lives by hunting and gathering | Early humans |
| Domestication | Keeping animals | Cattle, goats |
| Ice Age | Time when much of the Earth was ice-covered | Ended about 12,000 years ago |
| Metals | Copper and iron for durable tools | Tools, ornaments |
Practice questions
- 1For how long have modern humans lived on Earth?
- 2Who is a hunter-gatherer?
- 3Name one source of knowledge about early human life.
- 4Which animals did early farmers keep?
- 5Which new technologies appeared in villages?
- 6When did the last Ice Age end?
- 7Why did population and settlements grow after farming began?
- 8Why should we think carefully about the roles shown in early human pictures?
Show answers (try them yourself first)
- 1For about 3 lakh years.
- 2A person who lives by hunting animals and gathering plants and fruits.
- 3Rock paintings, tools or beads.
- 4Cattle and goats.
- 5Pottery and the use of metals (copper first, iron later).
- 6About 12,000 years ago.
- 7More food was available so larger groups could live together.
- 8Because information is limited; pictured roles may not be accurate or cover every situation.